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An Account of Egypt

Herodotus

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An Account of Egypt

By Herodotus

Translated by

G. C. Macaulay

April, 2000 [Etext #2131]

The Project Gutenberg Etext of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus

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Etext prepared by Dagny, dagnyj@hotmail.com

and John Bickers, jbickers@ihug.co.nz

AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT

By Herodotus

Translated By

G. C. Macaulay

NOTE

HERODOTUS was born at Halicarnassus, on the southwest coast of Asia

Minor, in the early part of the fifth century, B. C. Of his life we

know almost nothing, except that he spent much of it traveling, to

collect the material for his writings, and that he finally settled

down at Thurii, in southern Italy, where his great work was composed.

He died in 424 B. C.

The subject of the history of Herodotus is the struggle between the

Greeks and the barbarians, which he brings down to the battle of

Mycale in 479 B. C. The work, as we have it, is divided into nine

books, named after the nine Muses, but this division is probably due

to the Alexandrine grammarians. His information he gathered mainly

from oral sources, as he traveled through Asia Minor, down into Egypt,

round the Black Sea, and into various parts of Greece and the

neighboring countries. The chronological narrative halts from time to

time to give opportunity for descriptions of the country, the people,

and their customs and previous history; and the political account is

constantly varied by rare tales and wonders.

Among these descriptions of countries the most fascinating to the

modern, as it was to the ancient, reader is his account of the marvels

of the land of Egypt. From the priests at Memphis, Heliopolis, and the

Egyptian Thebes he learned what he reports of the size of the country,

the wonders of the Nile, the ceremonies of their religion, the

sacredness of their animals. He tells also of the strange ways of the

crocodile and of that marvelous bird, the Phoenix; of dress and

funerals and embalming; of the eating of lotos and papyrus; of the

pyramids and the great labyrinth; of their kings and queens and

courtesans.

Yet Herodotus is not a mere teller of strange tales. However credulous

he may appear to a modern judgment, he takes care to keep separate

what he knows by his own observation from what he has merely inferred

and from what he has been told. He is candid about acknowledging

ignorance, and when versions differ he gives both. Thus the modern

scientific historian, with other means of corroboration, can sometimes

learn from Herodotus more than Herodotus himself knew.

There is abundant evidence, too, that Herodotus had a philosophy of

history. The unity which marks his work is due not only to the strong

Greek national feeling running through it, the feeling that rises to a

height in such passages as the descriptions of the battles of

Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, but also to his profound belief in

Fate and in Nemesis. To his belief in Fate is due the frequent quoting

of oracles and their fulfilment, the frequent references to things

foreordained by Providence. The working of Nemesis he finds in the

disasters that befall men and nations whose towering prosperity

awakens the jealousy of the gods. The final overthrow of the Persians,

which forms his main theme, is only one specially conspicuous example

of the operation of this force from which human life can never free

itself.

But, above all, he is the father of story-tellers. "Herodotus is such

simple and delightful reading," says Jevons; "he is so unaffected and

entertaining, his story flows so naturally and with such ease that we

have a difficulty in bearing in mind that, over and above the hard

writing which goes to make easy reading there is a perpetual marvel in

the work of Herodotus. It is the first artistic work in prose that

Greek literature produced. This prose work, which for pure literary

merit no subsequent work has surpassed, than which later generations,

after using the pen for centuries, have produced no prose more easy or

more readable, this was the first of histories and of literary prose."

AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT

BY HERODOTUS

BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES

CALLED EUTERPE

When Cyrus had brought his life to an end, Cambyses received the royal

power in succession, being the son of Cyrus and of Cassandane the

daughter of Pharnaspes, for whose death, which came about before his

own, Cyrus had made great mourning himself and also had proclaimed to

all those over whom he bore rule that they should make mourning for

her: Cambyses, I say, being the son of this woman and of Cyrus,

regarded the Ionians and Aiolians as slaves inherited from his father;

and he proceeded to march an army against Egypt, taking with him as

helpers not only other nations of which he was ruler, but also those

of the Hellenes over whom he had power besides.

Now the Egyptians, before the time when Psammetichos became king over

them, were wont to suppose that they had come into being first of all

men; but since the time when Psammetichos having become king desired

to know what men had come into being first, they suppose that the

Phrygians came into being before themselves, but they themselves

before all other men. Now Psammetichos, when he was not able by

inquiry to find out any means of knowing who had come into being first

of all men, contrived a device of the following kind:--Taking two new-

born children belonging to persons of the common sort he gave them to

a shepherd to bring up at the place where his flocks were, with a

manner of bringing up such as I shall say, charging him namely that no

man should utter any word in their presence, and that they should be

placed by themselves in a room where none might come, and at the

proper time he should bring them she-goats, and when he had satisfied

them with milk he should do for them whatever else was needed. These

things Psammetichos did and gave him this charge wishing to hear what

word the children would let break forth first after they had ceased

from wailings without sense. And accordingly it came to pass; for

after a space of two years had gone by, during which the shepherd went

on acting so, at length, when he opened the door and entered, both

children fell before him in entreaty and uttered the word /bekos/,

stretching forth their hands. At first when he heard this the shepherd

kept silence; but since this word was often repeated, as he visited

them constantly and attended to them, at last he declared the matter

to his master, and at his command he brought the children before his

face. Then Psammetichos having himself also heard it, began to inquire

what nation of men named anything /bekos/, and inquiring he found that

the Phrygians had this name for bread. In this manner and guided by an

indication such as this, the Egyptians were brought to allow that the

Phrygians were a more ancient people than themselves. That so it came

to pass I heard from the priests of that Hephaistos who dwells at

Memphis; but the Hellenes relate, besides many other idle tales, that

Psammetichos cut out the tongues of certain women and then caused the

children to live with these women.

With regard then to the rearing of the children they related so much

as I have said: and I heard also other things at Memphis when I had

speech with the priests of Hephaistos. Moreover I visited both Thebes

and Heliopolis for this very cause, namely because I wished to know

whether the priests at these places would agree in their accounts with

those at Memphis; for the men of Heliopolis are said to be the most

learned in records of the Egyptians. Those of their narrations which I

heard with regard to the gods I am not earnest to relate in full, but

I shall name them only because I consider that all men are equally

ignorant of these matters: and whatever things of them I may record I

shall record only because I am compelled by the course of the story.

But as to those matters which concern men, the priests agreed with one

another in saying that the Egyptians were the first of all men on

earth to find out the course of the year, having divided the seasons

into twelve parts to make up the whole; and this they said they found

out from the stars: and they reckon to this extent more wisely than

the Hellenes, as it seems to me, inasmuch as the Hellenes throw in an

intercalated month every other year, to make the seasons right,

whereas the Egyptians, reckoning the twelve months at thirty days

each, bring in also every year five days beyond number, and thus the

circle of their season is completed and comes round to the same point

whence it set out. They said moreover that the Egyptians were the

first who brought into use appellations for the twelve gods and the

Hellenes took up the use from them; and that they were the first who

assigned altars and images and temples to the gods, and who engraved

figures on stones; and with regard to the greater number of these

things they showed me by actual facts that they had happened so. They

said also that the first man who became king of Egypt was Min; and

that in his time all Egypt except the district of Thebes was a swamp,

and none of the regions were then above water which now lie below the

lake of Moiris, to which lake it is a voyage of seven days up the

river from the sea: and I thought that they said well about the land;

for it is manifest in truth even to a person who has not heard it

beforehand but has only seen, at least if he have understanding, that

the Egypt to which the Hellenes come in ships is a land which has been

won by the Egyptians as an addition, and that it is a gift of the

river: moreover the regions which lie above this lake also for a

distance of three days' sail, about which they did not go on to say

anything of this kind, are nevertheless another instance of the same

thing: for the nature of the land of Egypt is as follows:--First when

you are still approaching it in a ship and are distant a day's run

from the land, if you let down a sounding-line you will bring up mud

and you will find yourself in eleven fathoms. This then so far shows

that there is a silting forward of the land. Then secondly, as to

Egypt itself, the extent of it along the sea is sixty /schoines/,

according to our definition of Egypt as extending from the Gulf of

Plinthine to the Serbonian lake, along which stretches Mount Casion;

from this lake then the sixty /schoines/ are reckoned: for those of

men who are poor in land have their country measured by fathoms, those

who are less poor by furlongs, those who have much land by parasangs,

and those who have land in very great abundance by /schoines/: now the

parasang is equal to thirty furlongs, and each /schoine/, which is an

Egyptian measure, is equal to sixty furlongs. So there would be an

extent of three thousand six hundred furlongs for the coast-land of

Egypt. From thence and as far as Heliopolis inland Egypt is broad, and

the land is all flat and without springs of water and formed of mud:

and the road as one goes inland from the sea to Heliopolis is about

the same in length as that which leads from the altar of the twelve

gods at Athens to Pisa and the temple of Olympian Zeus: reckoning up

you would find the difference very small by which these roads fail of

being equal in length, not more indeed than fifteen furlongs; for the

road from Athens to Pisa wants fifteen furlongs of being fifteen

hundred, while the road to Heliopolis from the sea reaches that number

completely. From Heliopolis however, as you go up, Egypt is narrow;

for on the one side a mountain-range belonging to Arabia stretches

along by the side of it, going in a direction from the North towards

the midday and the South Wind, tending upwards without a break to that

which is called the Erythraian Sea, in which range are the stone-

quarries which were used in cutting stone for the pyramids at Memphis.

On this side then the mountain ends where I have said, and then takes

a turn back; and where it is widest, as I was informed, it is a

journey of two months across from East to West; and the borders of it

which turn towards the East are said to produce frankincense. Such

then is the nature of this mountain-range; and on the side of Egypt

towards Libya another range extends, rocky and enveloped in sand: in

this are the pyramids, and it runs in the same direction as those

parts of the Arabian mountains which go towards the midday. So then, I

say, from Heliopolis the land has no longer a great extent so far as

it belongs to Egypt, and for about four days' sail up the river Egypt

properly so called is narrow: and the space between the mountain-

ranges which have been mentioned is plain-land, but where it is

narrowest it did not seem to me to exceed two hundred furlongs from

the Arabian mountains to those which are called the Libyan. After this

again Egypt is broad. Such is the nature of this land: and from

Heliopolis to Thebes is a voyage up the river of nine days, and the

distance of the journey in furlongs is four thousand eight hundred and

sixty, the number of /schoines/ being eighty-one. If these measures of

Egypt in furlongs be put together, the result is as follows:--I have

already before this shown that the distance along the sea amounts to

three thousand six hundred furlongs, and I will now declare what the

distance is inland from the sea to Thebes, namely six thousand one

hundred and twenty furlongs: and again the distance from Thebes to the

city called Elephantine is one thousand eight hundred furlongs.

Of this land then, concerning which I have spoken, it seemed to myself

also, according as the priests said, that the greater part had been

won as an addition by the Egyptians; for it was evident to me that the

space between the aforesaid mountain-ranges, which lie above the city

of Memphis, once was a gulf of the sea, like the regions about Ilion

and Teuthrania and Ephesos and the plain of the Maiander, if it be

permitted to compare small things with great; and small these are in

comparison, for of the rivers which heaped up the soil in those

regions none is worthy to be compared in volume with a single one of

the mouths of the Nile, which has five mouths. Moreover there are

other rivers also, not in size at all equal to the Nile, which have

performed great feats; of which I can mention the names of several,

and especially the Acheloos, which flowing through Acarnania and so

issuing out into the sea has already made half of the Echinades from

islands into mainland. Now there is in the land of Arabia, not far

from Egypt, a gulf of the sea running in from that which is called the

Erythraian Sea, very long and narrow, as I am about to tell. With

respect to the length of the voyage along it, one who set out from the

innermost point to sail out through it into the open sea, would spend

forty days upon the voyage, using oars; and with respect to breadth,

where the gulf is broadest it is half a day's sail across: and there

is in it an ebb and flow of tide every day. Just such another gulf I

suppose that Egypt was, and that the one ran in towards Ethiopia from

the Northern Sea, and the other, the Arabian, of which I am about to

speak, tended from the South towards Syria, the gulfs boring in so as

almost to meet at their extreme points, and passing by one another

with but a small space left between. If then the stream of the Nile

should turn aside into this Arabian gulf, what would hinder that gulf

from being filled up with silt as the river continued to flow, at all

events within a period of twenty thousand years? indeed for my part I

am of the opinion that it would be filled up even within ten thousand

years. How, then, in all the time that has elapsed before I came into

being should not a gulf be filled up even of much greater size than

this by a river so great and so active? As regards Egypt then, I both

believe those who say that things are so, and for myself also I am

strongly of opinion that they are so; because I have observed that

Egypt runs out into the sea further than the adjoining land, and that

shells are found upon the mountains of it, and an efflorescence of

salt forms upon the surface, so that even the pyramids are being eaten

away by it, and moreover that of all the mountains of Egypt, the range

which lies above Memphis is the only one which has sand: besides which

I notice that Egypt resembles neither the land of Arabia, which

borders upon it, nor Libya, nor yet Syria (for they are Syrians who

dwell in the parts of Arabia lying along the sea), but that it has

soil which is black and easily breaks up, seeing that it is in truth

mud and silt brought down from Ethiopia by the river: but the soil of

Libya, we know, is reddish in colour and rather sandy, while that of

Arabia and Syria is somewhat clayey and rocky. The priests also gave

me a strong proof concerning this land as follows, namely that in the

reign of king Moiris, whenever the river reached a height of at least

eight cubits it watered Egypt below Memphis; and not yet nine hundred

years had gone by since the death of Moiris, when I heard these things

from the priests: now however, unless the river rises to sixteen

cubits, or fifteen at the least, it does not go over the land. I think

too that those Egyptians who dwell below the lake of Moiris and

especially in that region which is called the Delta, if that land

continues to grow in height according to this proportion and to

increase similarly in extent, will suffer for all remaining time, from

the Nile not overflowing their land, that same thing which they

themselves said that the Hellenes would at some time suffer: for

hearing that the whole land of the Hellenes has rain and is not

watered by rivers as theirs is, they said that the Hellenes would at

some time be disappointed of a great hope and would suffer the ills of

famine. This saying means that if the god shall not send them rain,

but shall allow drought to prevail for a long time, the Hellenes will

be destroyed by hunger; for they have in fact no other supply of water

to save them except from Zeus alone. This has been rightly said by the

Egyptians with reference to the Hellenes: but now let me tell how

matters are with the Egyptians themselves in their turn. If, in

accordance with what I before said, their land below Memphis (for this

is that which is increasing) shall continue to increase in height

according to the same proportion as in the past time, assuredly those

Egyptians who dwell here will suffer famine, if their land shall not

have rain nor the river be able to go over their fields. It is certain

however that now they gather in fruit from the earth with less labour

than any other men and also with less than the other Egyptians; for

they have no labour in breaking up furrows with a plough nor in hoeing

nor in any other of those labours which other men have about a crop;

but when the river has come up of itself and watered their fields and

after watering has left them again, then each man sows his own field

and turns into it swine, and when he has trodden the seed into the

ground by means of the swine, after that he waits for the harvest, and

when he has threshed the corn by means of the swine, then he gathers

it in.

If we desire to follow the opinions of the Ionians as regards Egypt,

who say that the Delta alone is Egypt, reckoning its sea-coast to be

from the watch-tower called of Perseus to the fish-curing houses of

Pelusion, a distance of forty /schoines/, and counting it to extend

inland as far as the city of Kercasoros, where the Nile divides and

runs to Pelusion and Canobos, while as for the rest of Egypt, they

assign it partly to Libya and partly to Arabia,--if, I say, we should

follow this account, we should thereby declare that in former times

the Egyptians had no land to live in; for, as we have seen, their

Delta at any rate is alluvial, and has appeared (so to speak) lately,

as the Egyptians themselves say and as my opinion is. If then at the

first there was no land for them to live in, why did they waste their

labour to prove that they had come into being before all other men?

They needed not to have made trial of the children to see what

language they would first utter. However I am not of the opinion that

the Egyptians came into being at the same time as that which is called

by the Ionians the Delta, but that they existed always ever since the

human race came into being, and that as their land advanced forwards,

many of them were left in their first abodes and many came down

gradually to the lower parts. At least it is certain that in old times

Thebes had the name of Egypt, and of this the circumference measures

six thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs.

If then we judge aright of these matters, the opinion of the Ionians

about Egypt is not sound: but if the judgment of the Ionians is right,

I declare that neither the Hellenes nor the Ionians themselves know

how to reckon since they say that the whole earth is made up of three

divisions, Europe, Asia, and Libya: for they ought to count in

addition to these the Delta of Egypt, since it belongs neither to Asia

nor to Libya; for at least it cannot be the river Nile by this

reckoning which divides Asia from Libya, but the Nile is cleft at the

point of this Delta so as to flow round it, and the result is that

this land would come between Asia and Libya.

We dismiss then our opinion of the Ionians, and express a judgment of

our own on this matter also, that Egypt is all that land which is

inhabited by Egyptians, just as Kilikia is that which is inhabited by

Kilikians and Assyria that which is inhabited by Assyrians, and we

know of no boundary properly speaking between Asia and Libya except

the borders of Egypt. If however we shall adopt the opinion which is

commonly held by the Hellenes, we shall suppose that the whole of

Egypt, beginning from the Cataract and the city of Elephantine, is

divided into two parts and that it thus partakes of both the names,

since one side will thus belong to Libya and the other to Asia; for

the Nile from the Cataract onwards flows to the sea cutting Egypt

through in the midst; and as far as the city of Kercasoros the Nile

flows in one single stream, but from this city onwards it is parted

into three ways; and one, which is called the Pelusian mouth, turns

towards the East; the second of the ways goes towards the West, and

this is called the Canobic mouth; but that one of the ways which is

straight runs thus,--when the river in its course downwards comes to

the point of the Delta, then it cuts the Delta through the midst and

so issues out to the sea. In this we have a portion of the water of

the river which is not the smallest nor the least famous, and it is

called the Sebennytic mouth. There are also two other mouths which

part off from the Sebennytic and go to the sea, and these are called,

one the Saitic, the other the Mendesian mouth. The Bolbitinitic, and

Bucolic mouths, on the other hand, are not natural but made by

digging. Moreover also the answer given by the Oracle of Ammon bears

witness in support of my opinion that Egypt is of the extent which I

declare it to be in my account; and of this answer I heard after I had

formed my own opinion about Egypt. For those of the city of Marea and

of Apis, dwelling in the parts of Egypt which border on Libya, being

of opinion themselves that they were Libyans and not Egyptians, and

also being burdened by the rules of religious service, because they

desired not to be debarred from the use of cows' flesh, sent to Ammon

saying that they had nought in common with the Egyptians, for they

dwelt outside the Delta and agreed with them in nothing; and they said

they desired that it might be lawful for them to eat everything

without distinction. The god however did not permit them to do so, but

said that that land was Egypt where the Nile came over and watered,

and that those were Egyptians who dwelling below the city of

Elephantine drank of that river. Thus was it answered to them by the

Oracle about this: and the Nile, when it is in flood, goes over not

only the Delta but also of the land which is called Libyan and of that

which is called Arabian sometimes as much as two days' journey on each

side, and at times even more than this or at times less.

As regards the nature of the river, neither from the priests nor yet

from any other man was I able to obtain any knowledge: and I was

desirous especially to learn from them about these matters, namely why

the Nile comes down increasing in volume from the summer solstice

onwards for a hundred days, and then, when it has reached the number

of these days, turns and goes back, failing in its stream, so that

through the whole winter season it continues to be low, and until the

summer solstice returns. Of none of these things was I able to receive

any account from the Egyptians, when I inquired of them what power the

Nile has whereby it is of a nature opposite to that of all other

rivers. And I made inquiry, desiring to know both this which I say and

also why, unlike all other rivers, it does not give rise to any

breezes blowing from it. However some of the Hellenes who desired to

gain distinction for cleverness have given an account of this water in

three different ways: two of these I do not think it worth while even

to speak of except only to indicate their nature; of which the one

says that the Etesian Winds are the cause that makes the river rise,

by preventing the Nile from flowing out into the sea. But often the

Etesian Winds fail and yet the Nile does the same work as it is wont

to do; and moreover, if these were the cause, all the other rivers

also which flow in a direction opposed to the Etesian Winds ought to

have been affected in the same way as the Nile, and even more, in as

much as they are smaller and present to them a feebler flow of

streams: but there are many of these rivers in Syria and many also in

Libya, and they are affected in no such manner as the Nile. The second

way shows more ignorance than that which has been mentioned, and it is

more marvellous to tell; for it says that the river produces these

effects because it flows from the Ocean, and that the Ocean flows

round the whole earth. The third of the ways is much the most

specious, but nevertheless it is the most mistaken of all: for indeed

this way has no more truth in it than the rest, alleging as it does

that the Nile flows from melting snow; whereas it flows out of Libya

through the midst of the Ethiopians, and so comes out into Egypt. How

then should it flow from snow, when it flows from the hottest parts to

those which are cooler? And indeed most of the facts are such as to

convince a man (one at least who is capable of reasoning about such

matters), that it is not at all likely that it flows from snow. The

first and greatest evidence is afforded by the winds, which blow hot

from these regions; the second is that the land is rainless always and

without frost, whereas after snow has fallen rain must necessarily

come within five days, so that if it snowed in those parts rain would

fall there; the third evidence is afforded by the people dwelling

there, who are of a black colour by reason of the burning heat.

Moreover kites and swallows remain there through the year and do not

leave the land; and cranes flying from the cold weather which comes on

in the region of Scythia come regularly to these parts for wintering:

if then it snowed ever so little in that land through which the Nile

flows and in which it has its rise, none of these things would take

place, as necessity compels us to admit. As for him who talked about

the Ocean, he carried his tale into the region of the unknown, and so

he need not be refuted; since I for my part know of no river Ocean

existing, but I think that Homer or one of the poets who were before

him invented the name and introduced it into his verse.

If however after I have found fault with the opinions proposed, I am

bound to declare an opinion of my own about the matters which are in

doubt, I will tell what to my mind is the reason why the Nile

increases in the summer. In the winter season the Sun, being driven

away from his former path through the heaven by the stormy winds,

comes to the upper parts of Libya. If one would set forth the matter

in the shortest way, all has now been said; for whatever region this

god approaches most and stands directly above, this it may reasonably

be supposed is most in want of water, and its native streams of rivers

are dried up most. However, to set it forth at greater length, thus it

is:--the Sun passing in his course by the upper parts of Libya, does

thus, that is to say, since at all times the air in those parts is

clear and the country is warm, because there are no cold winds, in

passing through it the Sun does just as he was wont to do in the

summer, when going through the midst of the heaven, that is he draws

to himself the water, and having drawn it he drives it away to the

upper parts of the country, and the winds take it up and scattering it

abroad melt it into rain; so it is natural that the winds which blow

from this region, namely the South and South-west Winds, should be

much the most rainy of all the winds. I think however that the Sun

does not send away from himself all the water of the Nile of each

year, but that also he lets some remain behind with himself. Then when

the winter becomes milder, the Sun returns back again to the midst of

the heaven, and from that time onwards he draws equally from all

rivers; but in the meantime they flow in large volume, since water of

rain mingles with them in great quantity, because their country

receives rain then and is filled with torrent streams. In summer

however they are weak, since not only the showers of rain fail them,

but also they are drawn by the Sun. The Nile however, alone of all

rivers, not having rain and being drawn by the Sun, naturally flows

during this time of winter in much less than its proper volume, that

is much less than in summer; for then it is drawn equally with all the

other waters, but in winter it bears the burden alone. Thus I suppose

the Sun to be the cause of these things. He also is the cause in my

opinion that the air in these parts is dry, since he makes it so by

scorching up his path through the heaven: thus summer prevails always

in the upper parts of Libya. If however the station of the seasons had

been changed, and where now in the heaven are placed the North Wind

and winter, there was the station of the South Wind and of the midday,

and where now is placed the South Wind, there was the North, if this

had been so, the Sun being driven from the midst of the heaven by the

winter and the North Wind would go to the upper parts of Europe, just

as now he comes to the upper parts of Libya, and passing in his course

throughout the whole of Europe I suppose he would do to the Ister that

which he now works upon the Nile. As to the breeze, why none blows

from the river, my opinion is that from very hot places it is not

natural that anything should blow, and that a breeze is wont to blow

from something cold.

Let these matters then be as they are and as they were at the first:

but as to the sources of the Nile, not one either of the Egyptians or

of the Libyans or of the Hellenes, who came to speech with me,

professed to know anything, except the scribe of the sacred treasury

of Athene at the city of Sais in Egypt. To me however this man seemed

not to be speaking seriously when he said that he had certain

knowledge of it; and he said as follows, namely that there were two

mountains of which the tops ran up to a sharp point, situated between

the city of Syene, which is in the district of Thebes, and

Elephantine, and the names of the mountains were, of the one Crophi

and of the other Mophi. From the middle between these mountains flowed

(he said) the sources of the Nile, which were fathomless in depth, and

half of the water flowed to Egypt and towards the North Wind, the

other half to Ethiopia and the South Wind. As for the fathomless depth

of the source, he said that Psammetichos king of Egypt came to a trial

of this matter; for he had a rope twisted of many thousand fathoms and

let it down in this place, and it found no bottom. By this the scribe

(if this which he told was really as he said) gave me to understand

that there were certain strong eddies there and a backward flow, and

that since the water dashed against the mountains, therefore the

sounding-line could not come to any bottom when it was let down. From

no other person was I able to learn anything about this matter; but

for the rest I learnt so much as here follows by the most diligent

inquiry; for I went myself as an eye-witness as far as the city of

Elephantine and from that point onwards I gathered knowledge by

report. From the city of Elephantine as one goes up the river there is

country which slopes steeply; so that here one must attach ropes to

the vessel on both sides, as one fastens an ox, and so make one's way

onward; and if the rope break, the vessel is gone at once, carried

away by the violence of the stream. Through this country it is a

voyage of about four days in length, and in this part the Nile is

winding like the river Maiander, and the distance amounts to twelve

/schoines/, which one must traverse in this manner. Then you will come

to a level plain, in which the Nile flows round an island named

Tachompso. (Now in the regions above the Elephantine there dwell

Ethiopians at once succeeding, who also occupy half of the island, and

Egyptians the other half.) Adjoining this island there is a great

lake, round which dwell Ethiopian nomad tribes; and when you have

sailed through this you will come to the stream of the Nile again,

which flows into this lake. After this you will disembark and make a

journey by land of forty days; for in the Nile sharp rocks stand forth

out of the water, and there are many reefs, by which it is not

possible for a vessel to pass. Then after having passed through this

country in the forty days which I have said, you will embark again in

another vessel and sail for twelve days; and after this you will come

to a great city called Meroe. This city is said to be the mother-city

of all the other Ethiopians: and they who dwell in it reverence of the

gods Zeus and Dionysos alone, and these they greatly honour; and they

have an Oracle of Zeus established, and make warlike marches

whensoever the god commands them by prophesyings and to whatsoever

place he commands. Sailing from this city you will come to the

"Deserters" in another period of time equal to that in which you came

from Elephantine to the mother-city of the Ethiopians. Now the name of

these "Deserters" is /Asmach/, and this word signifies, when

translated into the tongue of the Hellenes, "those who stand on the

left hand of the king." These were two hundred and forty thousand

Egyptians of the warrior class, who revolted and went over to these

Ethiopians for the following cause:--In the reign of Psammetichos

garrisons were set, one towards the Ethiopians at the city of

Elephantine, another towards the Arabians and Assyrians at Daphnai of

Pelusion, and another towards Libya at Marea: and even in my own time

the garrisons of the Persians too are ordered in the same manner as

these were in the reign of Psammetichos, for both at Elephantine and

at Daphnai the Persians have outposts. The Egyptians then of whom I

speak had served as outposts for three years and no one relieved them

from their guard; accordingly they took counsel together, and adopting

a common plan they all in a body revolted from Psammetichos and set

out for Ethiopia. Hearing this Psammetichos set forth in pursuit, and

when he came up with them he entreated them much and endeavoured to

persuade them not to desert the gods of their country and their

children and wives: upon which it is said that one of them pointed to

his privy member and said that wherever this was, there would they

have both children and wives. When these came to Ethiopia they gave

themselves over to the king of the Ethiopians; and he rewarded them as

follows:--there were certain of the Ethiopians who had come to be at

variance with him; and he bade them drive these out and dwell in their

land. So since these men settled in the land of the Ethiopians, the

Ethiopians have come to be of milder manners, from having learnt the

customs of the Egyptians.

The Nile then, besides the part of its course which is in Egypt, is

known as far as a four months' journey by river and land: for that is

the number of months which are found by reckoning to be spent in going

from Elephantine to these "Deserters": and the river runs from the

West and the setting of the sun. But what comes after that point no

one can clearly say; for this land is desert by reason of the burning

heat. This much however I heard from men of Kyrene, who told me that

they had been to the Oracle of Ammon, and had come to speech with

Etearchos king of the Ammonians: and it happened that after speaking

of other matters they fell to discourse about the Nile and how no one

knew the sources of it; and Etearchos said that once there came to him

men of the Nasamonians (this is a Libyan race which dwells in the

Syrtis, and also in the land to the East of the Syrtis reaching to no

great distance), and when the Nasamonians came and were asked by him

whether they were able to tell him anything more than he knew about

the desert parts of Libya, they said that there had been among them

certain sons of chief men, who were of unruly disposition; and these

when they grew up to be men had devised various other extravagant

things and also they had told off by lot five of themselves to go to

see the desert parts of Libya and to try whether they could discover

more than those who had previously explored furthest: for in those

parts of Libya which are by the Northern Sea, beginning from Egypt and

going as far as the headland of Soloeis, which is the extreme point of

Libya, Libyans (and of them many races) extend along the whole coast,

except so much as the Hellenes and Phenicians hold; but in the upper

parts, which lie above the sea-coast and above those people whose land

comes down to the sea, Libya is full of wild beasts; and in the parts

above the land of wild beasts it is full of sand, terribly waterless

and utterly desert. These young men then (said they), being sent out

by their companions well furnished with supplies of water and

provisions, went first through the inhabited country, and after they

had passed through this they came to the country of wild beasts, and

after this they passed through the desert, making their journey

towards the West Wind; and having passed through a great tract of sand

in many days, they saw at last trees growing in a level place; and

having come up to them, they were beginning to pluck the fruit which

was upon the trees: but as they began to pluck it, there came upon

them small men, of less stature than men of the common size, and these

seized them and carried them away; and neither could the Nasamonians

understand anything of their speech nor could those who were carrying

them off understand anything of the speech of the Nasamonians; and

they led them (so it was said) through very great swamps, and after

passing through these they came to a city in which all the men were in

size like those who carried them off and in colour of skin black; and

by the city ran a great river, which ran from the West towards the

sunrising, and in it were seen crocodiles. Of the account given by

Etearchos the Ammonian let so much suffice as is here said, except

that, as the men of Kyrene told me, he alleged that the Nasamonians

returned safe home, and that the people to whom they had come were all

wizards. Now this river which ran by the city, Etearchos conjectured

to be the Nile, and moreover reason compels us to think so; for the

Nile flows from Libya and cuts Libya through in the midst, and as I

conjecture, judging of what is not known by that which is evident to

the view, it starts at a distance from its mouth equal to that of the

Ister: for the river Ister begins from the Keltoi and the city of

Pyrene and so runs that it divides Europe in the midst (now the Keltoi

are outside the Pillars of Heracles and border upon the Kynesians, who

dwell furthest towards the sunset of all those who have their dwelling

in Europe): and the Ister ends, having its course through the whole of

Europe, by flowing into the Euxine Sea at the place where the

Milesians have their settlement of Istria. Now the Ister, since it

flows through land which is inhabited, is known by the reports of

many; but of the sources of the Nile no one can give an account, for

the part of Libya through which it flows is uninhabited and desert.

About its course however so much as it was possible to learn by the

most diligent inquiry has been told; and it runs out into Egypt. Now

Egypt lies nearly opposite to the mountain districts of Kilikia; and

from thence to Sinope, which lies upon the Euxine Sea, is a journey in

the same straight line of five days for a man without encumbrance; and

Sinope lies opposite to the place where the Ister runs out into the

sea: thus I think that the Nile passes through the whole of Libya and

is of equal measure with the Ister.

Of the Nile then let so much suffice as has been said. Of Egypt

however I shall make my report at length, because it has wonders more

in number than any other land, and works too it has to show as much as

any land, which are beyond expression great: for this reason then more

shall be said concerning it.

The Egyptians in agreement with their climate, which is unlike any

other, and with the river, which shows a nature different from all

other rivers, established for themselves manners and customs in a way

opposite to other men in almost all matters: for among them the women

frequent the market and carry on trade, while the men remain at home

and weave; and whereas others weave pushing the woof upwards, the

Egyptians push it downwards: the men carry their burdens upon their

heads and the women upon their shoulders: the women make water

standing up and the men crouching down: they ease themselves in their

houses and they eat without in the streets, alleging as reason for

this that it is right to do secretly the things that are unseemly

though necessary, but those which are not unseemly, in public: no

woman is a minister either of male or female divinity, but men of all,

both male and female: to support their parents the sons are in no way

compelled, if they do not desire to do so, but the daughters are

forced to do so, be they never so unwilling. The priests of the gods

in other lands wear long hair, but in Egypt they shave their heads:

among other men the custom is that in mourning those whom the matter

concerns most nearly have their hair cut short, but the Egyptians,

when deaths occur, let their hair grow long, both that on the head and

that on the chin, having before been close shaven: other men have

their daily living separated from beasts, but the Egyptians have

theirs together with beasts: other men live on wheat and on barley,

but to any one of the Egyptians who makes his living on these it is a

great reproach; they make their bread of maize, which some call spelt:

they knead dough with their feet and clay with their hands, with which

also they gather up dung: and whereas other men, except such as have

learnt otherwise from the Egyptians, have their members as nature made

them, the Egyptians practice circumcision: as to garments, the men

wear two each and the women but one: and whereas others make fast the

rings and ropes of the sails outside the ship, the Egyptians do this

inside: finally in the writing of characters and reckoning with

pebbles, while the Hellenes carry the hand from the left to the right,

the Egyptians do this from the right to the left; and doing so they

say that they do it themselves rightwise and the Hellenes leftwise:

and they use two kinds of characters for writing, of which the one

kind is called sacred and the other common.

They are religious excessively beyond all other men, and with regard

to this they have customs as follows:--they drink from cups of bronze

and rinse them out every day, and not some only do this but all: they

wear garments of linen always newly washed, and this they make a

special point of practice: they circumcise themselves for the sake of

cleanliness, preferring to be clean rather than comely. The priests

shave themselves all over their body every other day, so that no lice

or any other foul thing may come to be upon them when they minister to

the gods; and the priests wear garments of linen only and sandals of

papyrus, and any other garment they may not take nor other sandals;

these wash themselves in cold water twice in a day and twice again in

the night; and other religious services they perform (one may almost

say) of infinite number. They enjoy also good things not a few, for

they do not consume or spend anything of their own substance, but

there is sacred bread baked for them and they have each great quantity

of flesh of oxen and geese coming in to them each day, and also wine

of grapes is given to them; but it is not permitted to them to taste

of fish: beans moreover the Egyptians do not at all sow in their land,

and those which they grow they neither eat raw nor boil for food; nay

the priests do not endure even to look upon them, thinking this to be

an unclean kind of pulse: and there is not one priest only for each of

the gods but many, and of them one is chief-priest, and whenever a

priest dies his son is appointed to his place.

The males of the ox kind they consider to belong to Epaphos, and on

account of him they test them in the following manner:--If the priest

sees one single black hair upon the beast he counts it not clean for

sacrifice; and one of the priests who is appointed for the purpose

makes investigation of these matters, both when the beast is standing

upright and when it is lying on its back, drawing out its tongue

moreover, to see if it is clean in respect of the appointed signs,

which I shall tell of in another part of the history: he looks also at

the hairs of the tail to see if it has them growing in a natural

manner; and if it be clean in respect of all these things, he marks it

with a piece of papyrus, rolling this round the horns, and then when

he has plastered sealing-earth over it he sets upon it the seal of his

signet-ring, and after that they take the animal away. But for one who

sacrifices a beast not sealed the penalty appointed is death. In this

way then the beast is tested; and their appointed manner of sacrifice

is as follows:--they lead the sealed beast to the altar where they

happen to be sacrificing, and then kindle a fire: after that, having

poured libations of wine over the altar so that it runs down upon the

victim and having called upon the god, they cut its throat, and having

cut its throat they sever the head from the body. The body then of the

beast they flay, but upon the head they make many imprecations first,

and then they who have a market and Hellenes sojourning among them for

trade, these carry it to the market-place and sell it, while they who

have no Hellenes among them cast it away into the river: and this is

the form of imprecations which they utter upon the heads, praying that

if any evil be about to befall either themselves who are offering

sacrifice or the land of Egypt in general, it may come rather upon

this head. Now as regards the heads of the beasts which are sacrificed

and the pouring over them of the wine, all the Egyptians have the same

customs equally for all their sacrifices; and by reason of this custom

none of the Egyptians eat of the head either of this or of any other

kind of animal: but the manner of disembowelling the victims and of

burning them is appointed among them differently for different

sacrifices; I shall speak however of the sacrifices to that goddess

whom they regard as the greatest of all, and to whom they celebrate

the greatest feast.--When they have flayed the bullock and made

imprecation, they take out the whole of its lower entrails but leave

in the body the upper entrails and the fat; and they sever from it the

legs and the end of the loin and the shoulders and the neck: and this

done, they fill the rest of the body of the animal with consecrated

loaves and honey and raisins and figs and frankincense and myrrh and

every other kind of spices, and having filled it with these they offer

it, pouring over it great abundance of oil. They make their sacrifice

after fasting, and while the offerings are being burnt, they all beat

themselves for mourning, and when they have finished beating

themselves they set forth as a feast that which they left unburnt of

the sacrifice. The clean males then of the ox kind, both full-grown

animals and calves, are sacrificed by all the Egyptians; the females

however they may not sacrifice, but these are sacred to Isis; for the

figure of Isis is in the form of a woman with cow's horns, just as the

Hellenes present Io in pictures, and all the Egyptians without

distinction reverence cows far more than any other kind of cattle; for

which reason neither man nor woman of the Egyptian race would kiss a

man who is a Hellene on the mouth, nor will they use a knife or

roasting-spits or a caldron belonging to a Hellene, nor taste the

flesh even of a clean animal if it has been cut with the knife of a

Hellene. And the cattle of this kind which die they bury in the

following manner:--the females they cast into the river, but the males

they bury, each people in the suburb of their town, with one of the

horns, or sometimes both, protruding to mark the place; and when the

bodies have rotted away and the appointed time comes on, then to each

city comes a boat from that which is called the island of Prosopitis

(this is in the Delta, and the extent of its circuit is nine

/schoines/). In this island of Prosopitis is situated, besides many

other cities, that one from which the boats come to take up the bones

of the oxen, and the name of the city is Atarbechis, and in it there

is set up a holy temple of Aphrodite. From this city many go abroad in

various directions, some to one city and others to another, and when

they have dug up the bones of the oxen they carry them off, and coming

together they bury them in one single place. In the same manner as

they bury the oxen they bury also their other cattle when they die;

for about them also they have the same law laid down, and these also

they abstain from killing.

Now all who have a temple set up to the Theban Zeus or who are of the

district of Thebes, these, I say, all sacrifice goats and abstain from

sheep: for not all the Egyptians equally reverence the same gods,

except only Isis and Osiris (who they say is Dionysos), these they all

reverence alike: but they who have a temple of Mendes or belong to the

Mendesian district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep. Now

the men of Thebes and those who after their example abstain from

sheep, say that this custom was established among them for the cause

which follows:--Heracles (they say) had an earnest desire to see Zeus,

and Zeus did not desire to be seen of him; and at last when Heracles

was urgent in entreaty Zeus contrived this device, that is to say, he

flayed a ram and held in front of him the head of the ram which he had

cut off, and he put on over him the fleece and then showed himself to

him. Hence the Egyptians make the image of Zeus with the face of a

ram; and the Ammonians do so also after their example, being settlers

both from the Egyptians and from the Ethiopians, and using a language

which is a medley of both tongues: and in my opinion it is from this

god that the Egyptians call Zeus /Amun/. The Thebans then do not

sacrifice rams but hold them sacred for this reason; on one day

however in the year, on the feast of Zeus, they cut up in the same

manner and flay one single ram and cover with its skin the image of

Zeus, and then they bring up to it another image of Heracles. This

done, all who are in the temple beat themselves in lamentation for the

ram, and then they bury it in a sacred tomb.

About Heracles I heard the account given that he was of the number of

the twelve gods; but of the other Heracles whom the Hellenes know I

was not able to hear in any part of Egypt: and moreover to prove that

the Egyptians did not take the name of Heracles from the Hellenes, but

rather the Hellenes from the Egyptians,--that is to say those of the

Hellenes who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon,--of

that, I say, besides many other evidences there is chiefly this,

namely that the parents of this Heracles, Amphitryon and Alcmene, were

both of Egypt by descent, and also that the Egyptians say that they do

not know the names either of Poseidon or of the Dioscuroi, nor have

these been accepted by them as gods among the other gods; whereas if

they had received from the Hellenes the name of any divinity, they

would naturally have preserved the memory of these most of all,

assuming that in those times as now some of the Hellenes were wont to

make voyages and were seafaring folk, as I suppose and as my judgment

compels me to think; so that the Egyptians would have learnt the names

of these gods even more than that of Heracles. In fact however

Heracles is a very ancient Egyptian god; and (as they say themselves)

it is seventeen thousand years to the beginning of the reign of Amasis

from the time when the twelve gods, of whom they count that Heracles

is one, were begotten of the eight gods. I moreover, desiring to know

something certain of these matters so far as might be, made a voyage

also to Tyre of Phenicia, hearing that in that place there was a holy

temple of Heracles; and I saw that it was richly furnished with many

votive offerings besides, and especially there were in it two pillars,

the one of pure gold and the other of an emerald stone of such size as

to shine by night: and having come to speech with the priests of the

god, I asked them how long a time it was since their temple had been

set up: and these also I found to be at variance with the Hellenes,

for they said that at the same time when Tyre was founded, the temple

of the god also had been set up, and that it was a period of two

thousand three hundred years since their people began to dwell at

Tyre. I saw also at Tyre another temple of Heracles, with the surname

Thasian; and I came to Thasos also and there I found a temple of

Heracles set up by the Phenicians, who had sailed out to seek for

Europa and had colonised Thasos; and these things happened full five

generations of men before Heracles the son of Amphitryon was born in

Hellas. So then my inquiries show clearly that Heracles is an ancient

god, and those of the Hellenes seem to me to act most rightly who have

two temples of Heracles set up, and who sacrifice to the one as an

immortal god and with the title Olympian, and make offerings of the

dead to the other as a hero. Moreover, besides many other stories

which the Hellenes tell without due consideration, this tale is

especially foolish which they tell about Heracles, namely that when he

came to Egypt, the Egyptians put on him wreaths and led him forth in

procession to sacrifice him to Zeus; and he for some time kept quiet,

but when they were beginning the sacrifice of him at the altar, he

betook himself to prowess and slew them all. I for my part am of

opinion that the Hellenes when they tell this tale are altogether

without knowledge of the nature and customs of the Egyptians; for how

should they for whom it is not lawful to sacrifice even beasts, except

swine and the males of oxen and calves (such of them as are clean) and

geese, how should these sacrifice human beings? Besides this, how is

it in nature possible that Heracles, being one person only and

moreover a man (as they assert), should slay many myriads? Having said

so much of these matters, we pray that we may have grace from both the

gods and the heroes for our speech.

Now the reason why those of the Egyptians whom I have mentioned do not

sacrifice goats, female or male, is this:--the Mendesians count Pan to

be one of the eight gods (now these eight gods they say came into

being before the twelve gods), and the painters and image-makers

represent in painting and in sculpture the figure of Pan, just as the

Hellenes do, with goat's face and legs, not supposing him to be really

like this but to resemble the other gods; the cause however why they

represent him in this form I prefer not to say. The Mendesians then

reverence all goats and the males more than the females (and the

goatherds too have greater honour than other herdsmen), but of the

goats one especially is reverenced, and when he dies there is great

mourning in all the Mendesian district: and both the goat and Pan are

called in the Egyptian tongue /Mendes/. Moreover in my lifetime there

happened in that district this marvel, that is to say a he-goat had

intercourse with a woman publicly, and this was so done that all men

might have evidence of it.

The pig is accounted by the Egyptians an abominable animal; and first,

if any of them in passing by touch a pig, he goes into the river and

dips himself forthwith in the water together with his garments; and

then too swineherds, though they may be native Egyptians, unlike all

others, do not enter any of the temples in Egypt, nor is anyone

willing to give his daughter in marriage to one of them or to take a

wife from among them; but the swineherds both give in marriage to one

another and take from one another. Now to the other gods the Egyptians

do not think it right to sacrifice swine; but to the Moon and to

Dionysos alone at the same time and on the same full-moon they

sacrifice swine, and then eat their flesh: and as to the reason why,

when they abominate swine at all their other feasts, they sacrifice

them at this, there is a story told by the Egyptians; and this story I

know, but it is not a seemly one for me to tell. Now the sacrifice of

the swine to the Moon is performed as follows:--when the priest has

slain the victim, he puts together the end of the tail and the spleen

and the caul, and covers them up with the whole of the fat of the

animal which is about the paunch, and then he offers them with fire;

and the rest of the flesh they eat on that day of full moon upon which

they have held sacrifice, but on any day after this they will not

taste of it: the poor however among them by reason of the scantiness

of their means shape pigs of dough and having baked them they offer

these as a sacrifice. Then for Dionysos on the eve of the festival

each one kills a pig by cutting its throat before his own doors, and

after that he gives the pig to the swineherd who sold it to him, to

carry away again; and the rest of the feast of Dionysos is celebrated

by the Egyptians in the same way as by the Hellenes in almost all

things except choral dances, but instead of the /phallos/ they have

invented another contrivance, namely figures of about a cubit in

height worked by strings, which women carry about the villages, with

the privy member made to move and not much less in size than the rest

of the body: and a flute goes before and they follow singing the

praises of Dionysos. As to the reason why the figure has this member

larger than is natural and moves it, though it moves no other part of

the body, about this there is a sacred story told. Now I think that

Melampus the son of Amytheon was not without knowledge of these rites

of sacrifice, but was acquainted with them: for Melampus is he who

first set forth to the Hellenes the name of Dionysos and the manner of

sacrifice and the procession of the /phallos/. Strictly speaking

indeed, he when he made it known did not take in the whole, but those

wise men who came after him made it known more at large. Melampus then

is he who taught of the /phallos/ which is carried in procession for

Dionysos, and from him the Hellenes learnt to do that which they do. I

say then that Melampus being a man of ability contrived for himself an

art of divination, and having learnt from Egypt he taught the Hellenes

many things, and among them those that concern Dionysos, making

changes in some few points of them: for I shall not say that that

which is done in worship of the god in Egypt came accidentally to be

the same with that which is done among the Hellenes, for then these

rites would have been in character with the Hellenic worship and not

lately brought in; nor certainly shall I say that the Egyptians took

from the Hellenes either this or any other customary observance:

matters concerning Dionysos from Cadmos the Tyrian and from those who

came with him from Phenicia to the land which we now call Boeotia.

Moreover the naming of almost all the gods has come to Hellas from

Egypt: for that it has come from the Barbarians I find by inquiry is

true, and I am of opinion that most probably it has come from Egypt,

because, except in the case of Poseidon and the Dioscuroi (in

accordance with that which I have said before), and also of Hera and

Hestia and Themis and the Charites and Nereids, the Egyptians say

themselves: but as for the gods whose names they profess that they do

not know, these I think received their naming from the Pelasgians,

except Poiseidon; but about this god the Hellenes learnt from the

Libyans, for no people except the Libyans have had the name of

Poseidon from the first and have paid honour to this god always. Nor,

it may be added, have the Egyptians any custom of worshipping heroes.

These observances then, and others besides these which I shall

mention, the Hellenes have adopted from the Egyptians; but to make, as

they do the images of Hermes with the /phallos/ they have learnt not

from the Egyptians but from the Pelasgians, the custom having been

received by the Athenians first of all the Hellenes and from these by

the rest; for just at the time when the Athenians were beginning to

rank among the Hellenes, the Pelasgians became dwellers with them in

their land, and from this very cause it was that they began to be

counted as Hellenes. Whosoever has been initiated in the mysteries of

the Cabeiroi, which the Samothrakians perform having received them

from the Pelasgians, that man knows the meaning of my speech; for

these very Pelasgians who became dwellers with the Athenians used to

dwell before that time in Samothrake, and from them the Samothrakians

received their mysteries. So then the Athenians were the first of the

Hellenes who made the images of Hermes with the /phallos/, having

learnt from the Pelasgians; and the Pelasgians told a sacred story

about it, which is set forth in the mysteries in Samothrake. Now the

Pelasgians formerly were wont to make all their sacrifices calling

upon the gods in prayer, as I know from that which I heard at Dodona,

but they gave no title or name to any of them, for they had not yet

heard any, but they called them gods from some such notion as this,

that they had set in order all things and so had the distribution of

everything. Afterwards when much time had elapsed, they learnt from

Egypt the names of the gods, all except Dionysos, for his name they

learnt long afterwards; and after a time the Pelasgians consulted the

Oracle at Dodona about the names, for this prophetic seat is accounted

to be the most ancient of the Oracles which are among the Hellenes,

and at that time it was the only one. So when the Pelasgians asked the

Oracle at Dodona whether they should adopt the names which had come

from the Barbarians, the Oracle in reply bade them make use of the

names. From this time they sacrificed using the names of the gods, and

from the Pelasgians the Hellenes afterwards received them: but when

the several gods had their birth, or whether they all were from the

beginning, and of what form they are, they did not learn till

yesterday, as it were, or the day before: for Hesiod and Homer I

suppose were four hundred years before my time and not more, and these

are they who made a theogony for the Hellenes and gave the titles to

the gods and distributed to them honours and arts, and set forth their

forms: but the poets who are said to have been before these men were

really in my opinion after them. Of these things the first are said by

the priestesses of Dodona, and the latter things, those namely which

have regard to Hesiod and Homer, by myself.

As regards the Oracles both that among the Hellenes and that in Libya,

the Egyptians tell the following tale. The priests of the Theban Zeus

told me that two women in the service of the temple had been carried

away from Thebes by Phenicians, and that they had heard that one of

them had been sold to go into Libya and the other to the Hellenes; and

these women, they said, were they who first founded the prophetic

seats among the nations which have been named: and when I inquired

whence they knew so perfectly of this tale which they told, they said

in reply that a great search had been made by the priests after these

women, and that they had not been able to find them, but they had

heard afterwards this tale about them which they were telling. This I

heard from the priests at Thebes, and what follows is said by the

prophetesses of Dodona. They say that two black doves flew from Thebes

in Egypt, and came one of them to Libya and the other to their land.

And this latter settled upon an oak-tree and spoke with human voice,

saying that it was necessary that a prophetic seat of Zeus should be

established in that place; and they supposed that that was of the gods

which was announced to them, and made one accordingly: and the dove

which went away to the Libyans, they say, bade the Libyans make an

Oracle of Ammon; and this also is of Zeus. The priestesses of Dodona

told me these things, of whom the eldest was named Promeneia, the next

after her Timarete, and the youngest Nicandra; and the other people of

Dodona who were engaged about the temple gave accounts agreeing with

theirs. I however have an opinion about the matter as follows:--If the

Phenicians did in truth carry away the consecrated women and sold one

of them into Libya and the other into Hellas, I suppose that in the

country now called Hellas, which was formerly called Pelasgia, this

woman was sold into the land of the Thesprotians; and then being a

slave there she set up a sanctuary of Zeus under a real oak-tree; as

indeed it was natural that being an attendant of the sanctuary of Zeus

at Thebes, she should there, in the place to which she had come, have

a memory of him; and after this, when she got understanding of the

Hellenic tongue, she established an Oracle, and she reported, I

suppose, that her sister had been sold in Libya by the same Phenicians

by whom she herself had been sold. Moreover, I think that the women

were called doves by the people of Dodona for the reason that they

were barbarians and because it seemed to them that they uttered voice

like birds; but after a time (they say) the dove spoke with human

voice, that is when the woman began to speak so that they could

understand; but so long as she spoke a Barbarian tongue she seemed to

them to be uttering voice like a bird: for if it had been really a

dove, how could it speak with human voice? And in saying that the dove

was black, they indicate that the woman was Egyptian. The ways of

delivering oracles too at Thebes in Egypt and at Dodona closely

resemble each other, as it happens, and also the method of divination

by victims has come from Egypt.

Moreover, it is true also that the Egyptians were the first of men who

made solemn assemblies and processions and approaches to the temples,

and from them the Hellenes have learnt them, and my evidence for this

is that the Egyptian celebrations of these have been held from a very

ancient time, whereas the Hellenic were introduced but lately. The

Egyptians hold their solemn assemblies not once in the year but often,

especially and with the greatest zeal and devotion at the city of

Bubastis for Artemis, and next at Busiris for Isis; for in this last-

named city there is a very great temple of Isis, and this city stands

in the middle of the Delta of Egypt; now Isis is in the tongue of the

Hellenes Demeter: thirdly, they have a solemn assembly at the city of

Sais for Athene, fourthly at Heliopolis for the Sun (Helios), fifthly

at the city of Buto in honour of Leto, and sixthly at the city of

Papremis for Ares. Now, when they are coming to the city of Bubastis

they do as follows:--they sail men and women together, and a great

multitude of each sex in every boat; and some of the women have

rattles and rattle with them, while some of the men play the flute

during the whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both women and men,

sing and clap their hands; and when as they sail they come opposite to

any city on the way they bring the boat to land, and some of the women

continue to do as I have said, others cry aloud and jeer at the women

in that city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up their

garments. This they do by every city along the river-bank; and when

they come to Bubastis they hold festival celebrating great sacrifices,

and more wine of grapes is consumed upon that festival than during the

whole of the rest of the year. To this place (so say the natives) they

come together year by year even to the number of seventy myriads of

men and women, besides children. Thus it is done here; and how they

celebrate the festival in honour of Isis at the city of Busiris has

been told by me before: for, as I said, they beat themselves in

mourning after the sacrifice, all of them both men and women, very

many myriads of people; but for whom they beat themselves it is not

permitted to me by religion to say: and so many as there are of the

Carians dwelling in Egypt do this even more than the Egyptians

themselves, inasmuch as they cut their foreheads also with knives; and

by this it is manifested that they are strangers and not Egyptians. At

the times when they gather together at the city of Sais for their

sacrifices, on a certain night they all kindle lamps many in number in

the open air round about the houses; now the lamps are saucers full of

salt and oil mixed, and the wick floats by itself on the surface, and

this burns during the whole night; and to the festival is given the

name /Lychnocaia/ (the lighting of lamps). Moreover those of the

Egyptians who have not come to this solemn assembly observe the night

of the festival and themselves also light lamps all of them, and thus

not in Sais alone are they lighted, but over all Egypt: and as to the

reason why light and honour are allotted to this night, about this

there is a sacred story told. To Heliopolis and Buto they go year by

year and do sacrifice only: but at Papremis they do sacrifice and

worship as elsewhere, and besides that, when the sun begins to go down

while some few of the priests are occupied with the image of the god,

the greater number of them stand in the entrance of the temple with

wooden clubs, and other persons to the number of more than a thousand

men with purpose to perform a vow, these also having all of them

staves of wood, stand in a body opposite to those: and the image,

which is in a small shrine of wood covered over with gold, they take

out on the day before to another sacred building. The few then who

have been left about the image, draw a wain with four wheels, which

bears the shrine and the image that is within the shrine, and the

other priests standing in the gateway try to prevent it from entering,

and the men who are under a vow come to the assistance of the god and

strike them, while the others defend themselves. Then there comes to

be a hard fight with staves, and they break one another's heads, and I

am of opinion that many even die of the wounds they receive; the

Egyptians however told me that no one died. This solemn assembly the

people of the place say that they established for the following

reason:--the mother of Ares, they say, used to dwell in this temple,

and Ares, having been brought up away from her, when he grew up came

thither desiring to visit his mother, and the attendants of his

mother's temple, not having seen him before, did not permit him to

pass in, but kept him away; and he brought men to help him from

another city and handled roughly the attendants of the temple, and

entered to visit his mother. Hence, they say, this exchange of blows

has become the custom in honour of Ares upon his festival.

The Egyptians were the first who made it a point of religion not to

lie with women in temples, nor to enter into temples after going away

from women without first bathing: for almost all other men except the

Egyptians and the Hellenes lie with women in temples and enter into a

temple after going away from women without bathing, since they hold

that there is no difference in this respect between men and beasts:

for they say that they see beasts and the various kinds of birds

coupling together both in the temples and in the sacred enclosures of

the gods; if then this were not pleasing to the god, the beasts would

not do so.

Thus do these defend that which they do, which by me is disallowed:

but the Egyptians are excessively careful in their observances, both

in other matters which concern the sacred rites and also in those

which follow:--Egypt, though it borders upon Libya, does not very much

abound in wild animals, but such as they have are one and all

accounted by them sacred, some of them living with men and others not.

But if I should say for what reasons the sacred animals have been thus

dedicated, I should fall into discourse of matters pertaining to the

gods, of which I most desire not to speak; and what I have actually

said touching slightly upon them, I said because I was constrained by

necessity. About these animals there is a custom of this kind:--

persons have been appointed of the Egyptians, both men and women, to

provide the food for each kind of beast separately, and their office

goes down from father to son; and those who dwell in the various

cities perform vows to them thus, that is, when they make a vow to the

god to whom the animal belongs, they shave the head of their children

either the whole or the half or the third part of it, and then set the

hair in the balance against silver, and whatever it weighs, this the

man gives to the person who provides for the animals, and she cuts up

fish of equal value and gives it for food to the animals. Thus food

for their support has been appointed and if any one kill any of these

animals, the penalty, if he do it with his own will, is death, and if

against his will, such penalty as the priests may appoint: but

whosoever shall kill an ibis or a hawk, whether it be with his will or

against his will, must die. Of the animals that live with men there

are great numbers, and would be many more but for the accidents which

befall the cats. For when the females have produced young they are no

longer in the habit of going to the males, and these seeking to be

united with them are not able. To this end then they contrive as

follows,--they either take away by force or remove secretly the young

from the females and kill them (but after killing they do not eat

them), and the females being deprived of their young and desiring

more, therefore come to the males, for it is a creature that is fond

of its young. Moreover when a fire occurs, the cats seem to be

divinely possessed; for while the Egyptians stand at intervals and

look after the cats, not taking any care to extinguish the fire, the

cats slipping through or leaping over the men, jump into the fire; and

when this happens, great mourning comes upon the Egyptians. And in

whatever houses a cat has died by a natural death, all those who dwell

in this house shave their eyebrows only, but those in which a dog has

died shave their whole body and also their head. The cats when they

are dead are carried away to sacred buildings in the city of Bubastis,

where after being embalmed they are buried; but the dogs they bury

each people in their own city in sacred tombs; and the ichneumons are

buried just in the same way as the dogs. The shrewmice however and the

hawks they carry away to the city of Buto, and the ibises to

Hermopolis; the bears (which are not commonly seen) and the wolves,

not much larger in size than foxes, they bury on the spot where they

are found lying.

Of the crocodile the nature is as follows:--during the four most

wintry months this creature eats nothing: she has four feet and is an

animal belonging to the land and the water both; for she produces and

hatches eggs on the land, and the most part of the day she remains

upon dry land, but the whole of the night in the river, for the water

in truth is warmer than the unclouded open air and the dew. Of all the

mortal creatures of which we have knowledge this grows to the greatest

bulk from the smallest beginning; for the eggs which she produces are

not much larger than those of geese and the newly-hatched young one is

in proportion to the egg, but as he grows he becomes as much as

seventeen cubits long and sometimes yet larger. He has eyes like those

of a pig and teeth large and tusky, in proportion to the size of his

body; but unlike all other beasts he grows no tongue, neither does he

move his lower jaw, but brings the upper jaw towards the lower, being

in this too unlike all other beasts. He has moreover strong claws and

a scaly hide upon his back which cannot be pierced; and he is blind in

the water, but in the air he is of a very keen sight. Since he has his

living in the water he keeps his mouth all full within of leeches; and

whereas all other birds and beasts fly from him, the trochilus is a

creature which is at peace with him, seeing that from her he receives

benefit; for the crocodile having come out of the water to the land

and then having opened his mouth (this he is wont to do generally

towards the West Wind), the trochilus upon that enters into his mouth

and swallows down the leeches, and he being benefited is pleased and

does no harm to the trochilus. Now for some of the Egyptians the

crocodiles are sacred animals, and for others not so, but they treat

them on the contrary as enemies: those however who dwell about Thebes

and about the lake of Moiris hold them to be most sacred, and each of

these two peoples keeps one crocodile selected from the whole number,

which has been trained to tameness, and they put hanging ornaments of

molten stone and of gold into the ears of these and anklets round the

front feet, and they give them food appointed and victims of

sacrifices and treat them as well as possible while they live, and

after they are dead they bury them in sacred tombs, embalming them:

but those who dwell about the city of Elephantine even eat them, not

holding them to be sacred. They are called not crocodiles but

/champsai/, and the Ionians gave them the name of crocodile, comparing

their form to that of the crocodiles (lizards) which appear in their

country in the stone walls. There are many ways in use of catching

them and of various kinds: I shall describe that which to me seems the

most worthy of being told. A man puts the back of a pig upon a hook as

bait, and lets it go into the middle of the river, while he himself

upon the bank of the river has a young live pig, which he beats; and

the crocodile hearing its cries makes for the direction of the sound,

and when he finds the pig's back he swallows it down: then they pull,

and when he is drawn out to land, first of all the hunter forthwith

plasters up his eyes with mud, and having done so he very easily gets

the mastery of him, but if he does not do so he has much trouble.

The river-horse is sacred in the district of Papremis, but for the

other Egyptians he is not sacred; and this is the appearance which he

presents: he is four-footed, cloven-hoofed like an ox, flat-nosed,

with a mane like a horse and showing teeth like tusks, with a tail and

voice like a horse and in size as large as the largest ox; and his

hide is so exceedingly thick that when it has been dried shafts of

javelins are made of it. There are moreover otters in the river, which

they consider to be sacred: and of fish also they esteem that which is

called the /lepidotos/ to be sacred, and also the eel; and these they

say are sacred to the Nile: and of birds the fox-goose.

There is also another sacred bird called the phoenix which I did not

myself see except in painting, for in truth he comes to them very

rarely, at intervals, as the people of Heliopolis say, of five hundred

years; and these say that he comes regularly when his father dies; and

if he be like the painting he is of this size and nature, that is to

say, some of his feathers are of gold colour and others red, and in

outline and size he is as nearly as possible like an eagle. This bird

they say (but I cannot believe the story) contrives as follows:--

setting forth from Arabia he conveys his father, they say, to the

temple of the Sun (Helios) plastered up in myrrh, and buries him in

the temple of the Sun; and he conveys him thus:--he forms first an egg

of myrrh as large as he is able to carry, and then he makes trial of

carrying it, and when he has made trial sufficiently, then he hollows

out the egg and places his father within it and plasters over with

other myrrh that part of the egg where he hollowed it out to put his

father in, and when his father is laid in it, it proves (they say) to

be of the same weight as it was; and after he has plastered it up, he

conveys the whole to Egypt to the temple of the Sun. Thus they say

that this bird does.

There are also about Thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to

men, which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top

of the head: these they bury when they die in the temple of Zeus, for

to this god they say that they are sacred. There is a region moreover

in Arabia, situated nearly over against the city of Buto, to which

place I came to inquire about the winged serpents: and when I came

thither I saw bones of serpents and spines in quantity so great that

it is impossible to make report of the number, and there were heaps of

spines, some heaps large and others less large and others smaller

still than these, and these heaps were many in number. This region in

which the spines are scattered upon the ground is of the nature of an

entrance from a narrow mountain pass to a great plain, which plain

adjoins the plain in Egypt; and the story goes that at the beginning

of spring winged serpents from Arabia fly towards Egypt, and the birds

called ibises meet them at the entrance to this country and do not

suffer the serpents to go by but kill them. On account of this deed it

is (say the Arabians) that the ibis has come to be greatly honoured by

the Egyptians, and the Egyptians also agree that it is for this reason

that they honour these birds. The outward form of the ibis is this:--

it is a deep black all over, and has legs like those of a crane and a

very curved beak, and in size it is about equal to a rail: this is the

appearance of the black kind which fight with the serpents, but of

those which most crowd round men's feet (for there are two several

kinds of ibises) the head is bare and also the whole of the throat,

and it is white in feathering except the head and neck and the

extremities of the wings and the rump (in all these parts of which I

have spoken it is a deep black), while in legs and in the form of the

head it resembles the other. As for the serpent its form is like that

of the watersnake; and it has wings not feathered but most nearly

resembling the wings of the bat. Let so much suffice as has been said

now concerning sacred animals.

Of the Egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of Egypt

which is sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and

are the most learned in history by far of all those of whom I have had

experience: and their manner of life is as follows:--For three

successive days in each month they purge, hunting after health with

emetics and clysters, and they think that all the diseases which exist

are produced in men by the food on which they live: for the Egyptians

are from other causes also the most healthy of all men next after the

Libyans (in my opinion on account of the seasons, because the seasons

do not change, for by the changes of things generally, and especially

of the seasons, diseases are most apt to be produced in men), and as

to their diet, it is as follows:--they eat bread, making loaves of

maize, which they call /kyllestis/, and they use habitually a wine

made out of barley, for vines they have not in their land. Of their

fish some they dry in the sun and then eat them without cooking,

others they eat cured in brine. Of birds they eat quails and ducks and

small birds without cooking, after first curing them; and everything

else which they have belonging to the class of birds or fishes, except

such as have been set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or

boiled. In the entertainments of the rich among them, when they have

finished eating, a man bears round a wooden figure of a dead body in a

coffin, made as like the reality as may be both by painting and

carving, and measuring about a cubit or two cubits each way; and this

he shows to each of those who are drinking together, saying: "When

thou lookest upon this, drink and be merry, for thou shalt be such as

this when thou art dead." Thus they do at their carousals. The customs

which they practise are derived from their fathers and they do not

acquire others in addition; but besides other customary things among

them which are worthy of mention, they have one song, that of Linos,

the same who is sung of both in Phenicia and in Cyprus and elsewhere,

having however a name different according to the various nations. This

song agrees exactly with that which the Hellenes sing calling on the

name of Linos, so that besides many other things about which I wonder

among those matters which concern Egypt, I wonder especially about

this, namely whence they got the song of Linos. It is evident however

that they have sung this song from immemorial time, and in the

Egyptian tongue Linos is called Maneros. The Egyptians told me that he

was the only son of him who first became king of Egypt, and that he

died before his time and was honoured with these lamentations by the

Egyptians, and that this was their first and only song. In another

respect the Egyptians are in agreement with some of the Hellenes,

namely with the Lacedemonians, but not with the rest, that is to say,

the younger of them when they meet the elder give way and move out of

the path, and when their elders approach, they rise out of their seat.

In this which follows however they are not in agreement with any of

the Hellenes,--instead of addressing one another in the roads they do

reverence, lowering their hand down to their knee. They wear tunics of

linen about their legs with fringes, which they call /calasiris/;

above these they have garments of white wool thrown over: woolen

garments however are not taken into the temples, nor are they buried

with them, for this is not permitted by religion. In these points they

are in agreement with the observances called Orphic and Bacchic (which

are really Egyptian), and also with those of the Pythagoreans, for one

who takes part in these mysteries is also forbidden by religious rule

to be buried in woolen garments; and about this there is a sacred

story told.

Besides these things the Egyptians have found out also to what god

each month and each day belongs, and what fortunes a man will meet

with who is born on any particular day, and how he will die, and what

kind of a man he will be: and these inventions were taken up by those

of the Hellenes who occupied themselves about poesy. Portents too have

been found out by them more than by all other men besides; for when a

portent has happened, they observe and write down the event which

comes of it, and if ever afterwards anything resembling this happens,

they believe that the event which comes of it will be similar. Their

divination is ordered thus:--the art is assigned not to any man but to

certain of the gods, for there are in their land Oracles of Heracles,

of Apollo, of Athene, of Artemis, or Ares, and of Zeus, and moreover

that which they hold most in honour of all, namely the Oracle of Leto

which is in the city of Buto. The manner of divination however is not

established among them according to the same fashion everywhere, but

is different in different places. The art of medicine among them is

distributed thus:--each physician is a physician of one disease and of

no more; and the whole country is full of physicians, for some profess

themselves to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, others of

the teeth, others of the affections of the stomach, and others of the

more obscure ailments.

Their fashions of mourning and of burial are these:--Whenever any

household has lost a man who is of any regard amongst them, the whole

number of women of that house forthwith plaster over their heads or

even their faces with mud. Then leaving the corpse within the house

they go themselves to and fro about the city and beat themselves, with

their garments bound up by a girdle and their breasts exposed, and

with them go all the women who are related to the dead man, and on the

other side the men beat themselves, they too having their garments

bound up by a girdle; and when they have done this, they then convey

the body to the embalming. In this occupation certain persons employ

themselves regularly and inherit this as a craft. These, whenever a

corpse is conveyed to them, show to those who brought it wooden models

of corpses made like reality by painting, and the best of the ways of

embalming they say is that of him whose name I think it impiety to

mention when speaking of a matter of such a kind; the second which

they show is less good than this and also less expensive; and the

third is the least expensive of all. Having told them about this, they

inquire of them in which way they desire the corpse of their friend to

be prepared. Then they after they have agreed for a certain price

depart out of the way, and the others being left behind in the

buildings embalm according to the best of these ways thus:--First with

the crooked iron tool they draw out the brain through the nostrils,

extracting it partly thus and partly by pouring in drugs; and after

this with a sharp stone of Ethiopia they make a cut along the side and

take out the whole contents of the belly, and when they have cleared

out the cavity and cleansed it with palm-wine they cleanse it again

with spices pounded up: then they fill the belly with pure myrrh

pounded up and with cassia and other spices except frankincense, and

sew it together again. Having so done they keep it for embalming

covered up in natron for seventy days, but for a longer time than this

it is not permitted to embalm it; and when the seventy days are past,

they wash the corpse and roll its whole body up in fine linen cut into

bands, smearing these beneath with gum, which the Egyptians use

generally instead of glue. Then the kinsfolk receive it from them and

have a wooden figure made in the shape of a man, and when they have

had this made they enclose the corpse, and having shut it up within,

they store it then in a sepulchral chamber, setting it to stand

upright against the wall. Thus they deal with the corpses which are

prepared in the most costly way; but for those who desire the middle

way and wish to avoid great cost they prepare the corpse as follows:--

having filled their syringes with the oil which is got from cedar-

wood, with this they forthwith fill the belly of the corpse, and this

they do without having either cut it open or taken out the bowels, but

they inject the oil by the breech, and having stopped the drench from

returning back they keep it then the appointed number of days for

embalming, and on the last of the days they let the cedar oil come out

from the belly, which they before put in; and it has such power that

it brings out with it the bowels and interior organs of the body

dissolved; and the natron dissolves the flesh, so that there is left

of the corpse only the skin and the bones. When they have done this

they give back the corpse at once in that condition without working

upon it any more. The third kind of embalming, by which are prepared

the bodies of those who have less means, is as follows:--they cleanse

out the belly with a purge and then keep the body for embalming during

the seventy days, and at once after that they give it back to the

bringers to carry away. The wives of men of rank when they die are not

given at once to be embalmed, nor such women as are very beautiful or

of greater regard than others, but on the third or fourth day after

their death (and not before) they are delivered to the embalmers. They

do so about this matter in order that the embalmers may not abuse

their women, for they say that one of them was taken once doing so to

the corpse of a woman lately dead, and his fellow-craftsman gave

information. Whenever any one, either of the Egyptians themselves or

of strangers, is found to have been carried off by a crocodile or

brought to his death by the river itself, the people of any city by

which he may have been cast up on land must embalm him and lay him out

in the fairest way they can and bury him in a sacred burial-place, nor

may any of his relations or friends besides touch him, but the priests

of the Nile themselves handle the corpse and bury it as that of one

who was something more than man.

Hellenic usages they will by no means follow, and to speak generally

they follow those of no other men whatever. This rule is observed by

most of the Egyptians; but there is a large city named Chemmis in the

Theban district near Neapolis, and in this city there is a temple of

Perseus the son of Danae which is of a square shape, and round it grow

date-palms: the gateway of the temple is built of stone and of very

great size, and at the entrance of it stand two great statues of

stone. Within this enclosure is a temple-house and in it stands an

image of Perseus. These people of Chemmis say that Perseus is wont

often to appear in their land and often within the temple, and that a

sandal which has been worn by him is found sometimes, being in length

two cubits, and whenever this appears all Egypt prospers. This they

say, and they do in honour of Perseus after Hellenic fashion thus,--

they hold an athletic contest, which includes the whole list of games,

and they offer in prizes cattle and cloaks and skins: and when I

inquired why to them alone Perseus was wont to appear, and wherefore

they were separated from all the other Egyptians in that they held an

athletic contest, they said that Perseus had been born of their city,

for Danaos and Lynkeus were men of Chemmis and had sailed to Hellas,

and from them they traced a descent and came down to Perseus: and they

told me that he had come to Egypt for the reason which the Hellenes

also say, namely to bring from Libya the Gorgon's head, and had then

visited them also and recognised all his kinsfolk, and they said that

he had well learnt the name of Chemmis before he came to Egypt, since

he had heard it from his mother, and that they celebrated an athletic

contest for him by his own command.

All these are customs practised by the Egyptians who dwell above the

fens: and those who are settled in the fenland have the same customs

for the most part as the other Egyptians, both in other matters and

also in that they live each with one wife only, as do the Hellenes;

but for economy in respect of food they have invented these things

besides:--when the river has become full and the plains have been

flooded, there grow in the water great numbers of lilies, which the

Egyptians call /lotos/; these they cut with a sickle and dry in the

sun, and then they pound that which grows in the middle of the lotos

and which is like the head of a poppy, and they make of it loaves

baked with fire. The root also of this lotos is edible and has a

rather sweet taste: it is round in shape and about the size of an

apple. There are other lilies too, in flower resembling roses, which

also grow in the river, and from them the fruit is produced in a

separate vessel springing from the root by the side of the plant

itself, and very nearly resembles a wasp's comb: in this there grow

edible seeds in great numbers of the size of an olive-stone, and they

are eaten either fresh or dried. Besides this they pull up from the

fens the papyrus which grows every year, and the upper parts of it

they cut off and turn to other uses, but that which is left below for

about a cubit in length they eat or sell: and those who desire to have

the papyrus at its very best bake it in an oven heated red-hot, and

then eat it. Some too of these people live on fish alone, which they

dry in the sun after having caught them and taken out the entrails,

and then when they are dry, they use them for food.

Fish which swim in shoals are not much produced in the rivers, but are

bred in the lakes, and they do as follows:--When there comes upon them

the desire to breed, they swim out in shoals towards the sea; and the

males lead the way shedding forth their milt as they go, while the

females, coming after and swallowing it up, from it become

impregnated: and when they have become full of young in the sea they

swim up back again, each shoal to its own haunts. The same however no

longer lead the way as before, but the lead comes now to the females,

and they leading the way in shoals do just as the males did, that is

to say they shed forth their eggs by a few grains at a time, and the

males coming after swallow them up. Now these grains are fish, and

from the grains which survive and are not swallowed, the fish grow

which afterwards are bred up. Now those of the fish which are caught

as they swim out towards the sea are found to be rubbed on the left

side of the head, but those which are caught as they swim up again are

rubbed on the right side. This happens to them because as they swim

down to the sea they keep close to the land on the left side of the

river, and again as they swim up they keep to the same side,

approaching and touching the bank as much as they can, for fear

doubtless of straying from their course by reason of the stream. When

the Nile begins to swell, the hollow places of the land and the

depressions by the side of the river first begin to fill, as the water

soaks through from the river, and so soon as they become full of

water, at once they are all filled with little fishes; and whence

these are in all likelihood produced, I think that I perceive. In the

preceding year, when the Nile goes down, the fish first lay eggs in

the mud and then retire with the last of the retreating waters; and

when the time comes round again, and the water once more comes over

the land, from these eggs forthwith are produced the fishes of which I

speak.

Thus it is as regards the fish. And for anointing those of the

Egyptians who dwell in the fens use oil from the castor-berry, which

oil the Egyptians call /kiki/, and thus they do:--they sow along the

banks of the rivers and pools these plants, which in a wild form grow

of themselves in the land of the Hellenes; these are sown in Egypt and

produce berries in great quantity but of an evil smell; and when they

have gathered these some cut them up and press the oil from them,

others again roast them first and then boil them down and collect that

which runs away from them. The oil is fat and not less suitable for

burning than olive-oil, but it gives forth a disagreeable smell.

Against the gnats, which are very abundant, they have contrived as

follows:--those who dwell above the fen-land are helped by the towers,

to which they ascend when they go to rest; for the gnats by reason of

the winds are not able to fly up high: but those who dwell in the fen-

land have contrived another way instead of the towers, and this it is:

--every man of them has got a casting net, with which by day he

catches fish, but in the night he uses it for this purpose, that is to

say he puts the casting-net round about the bed in which he sleeps,

and then creeps in under it and goes to sleep: and the gnats, if he

sleeps rolled up in a garment or a linen sheet, bite through these,

but through the net they do not even attempt to bite.

Their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the thorny

acacia, of which the form is very like that of the Kyrenian lotos, and

that which exudes from it is gum. From this tree they cut pieces of

wood about two cubits in length and arrange them like bricks,

fastening the boat together by running a great number of long bolts

through the two-cubits pieces; and when they have thus fastened the

boat together, they lay cross-pieces over the top, using no ribs for

the sides; and within they caulk the seams with papyrus. They make one

steering-oar for it, which is passed through the bottom of the boat;

and they have a mast of acacia and sails of papyrus. These boats

cannot sail up the river unless there be a very fresh wind blowing,

but are towed from the shore: down-stream however they travel as

follows:--they have a door-shaped crate made of tamarisk wood and reed

mats sewn together, and also a stone of about two talents weight bored

with a hole; and of these the boatman lets the crate float on in front

of the boat, fastened with a rope, and the stone drags behind by

another rope. The crate then, as the force of the stream presses upon

it, goes on swiftly and draws on the /baris/ (for so these boats are

called), while the stone dragging after it behind and sunk deep in the

water keeps its course straight. These boats they have in great

numbers and some of them carry many thousands of talents' burden.

When the Nile comes over the land, the cities alone are seen rising

above the water, resembling more nearly than anything else the islands

in the Egean Sea; for the rest of Egypt becomes a sea and the cities

alone rise above water. Accordingly, whenever this happens, they pass

by water not now by the channels of the river but over the midst of

the plain: for example, as one sails up from Naucratis to Memphis the

passage is then close by the pyramids, whereas the usual passage is

not the same even here, but goes by the point of the Delta and the

city of Kercasoros; while if you sail over the plain to Naucratis from

the sea and from Canobos, you will go by Anthylla and the city called

after Archander. Of these Anthylla is a city of note and is especially

assigned to the wife of him who reigns over Egypt, to supply her with

sandals, (this is the case since the time when Egypt came to be under

the Persians): the other city seems to me to have its name from

Archander the son-in-law of Danaos, who was the son of Phthios, the

son of Achaios; for it is called the City of Archander. There might

indeed by another Archander, but in any case the name is not Egyptian.

Hitherto my own observation and judgment and inquiry are the vouchers

for that which I have said; but from this point onwards I am about to

tell the history of Egypt according to that which I have heard, to

which will be added also something of that which I have myself seen.

Of Min, who first became king of Egypt, the priests said that on the

one hand he banked off the site of Memphis from the river: for the

whole stream of the river used to flow along by the sandy mountain-

range on the side of Libya, but Min formed by embankments that bend of

the river which lies to the South about a hundred furlongs above

Memphis, and thus he dried up the old stream and conducted the river

so that it flowed in the middle between the mountains: and even now

this bend of the Nile is by the Persians kept under very careful

watch, that it may flow in the channel to which it is confined, and

the bank is repaired every year; for if the river should break through

and overflow in this direction, Memphis would be in danger of being

overwhelmed by flood. When this Min, who first became king, had made

into dry land the part which was dammed off, on the one hand, I say,

he founded in it that city which is now called Memphis; for Memphis

too is in the narrow part of Egypt; and outside the city he dug round

it on the North and West a lake communicating with the river, for the

side towards the East is barred by the Nile itself. Then secondly he

established in the city the temple of Hephaistos a great work and most

worthy of mention. After this man the priests enumerated to me from a

papyrus roll the names of other kings, three hundred and thirty in

number; and in all these generations of men eighteen were Ethiopians,

one was a woman, a native Egyptian, and the rest were men and of

Egyptian race: and the name of the woman who reigned was the same as

that of the Babylonian queen, namely Nitocris. Of her they said that

desiring to take vengeance for her brother, whom the Egyptians had

slain when he was their king and then, after having slain him, had

given his kingdom to her,--desiring, I say, to take vengeance for him,

she destroyed by craft many of the Egyptians. For she caused to be

constructed a very large chamber under ground, and making as though

she would handsel it but in her mind devising other things, she

invited those of the Egyptians whom she knew to have had most part in

the murder, and gave a great banquet. Then while they were feasting,

she let in the river upon them by a secret conduit of large size. Of

her they told no more than this, except that, when this had been

accomplished, she threw herself into a room full of embers, in order

that she might escape vengeance. As for the other kings, they could

tell me of no great works which had been produced by them, and they

said that they had no renown except only the last of them, Moiris: he

(they said) produced as a memorial of himself the gateway of the

temple of Hephaistos which is turned towards the North Wind, and dug a

lake, about which I shall set forth afterwards how many furlongs of

circuit it has, and in it built pyramids of the size which I shall

mention at the same time when I speak of the lake itself. He, they

said, produced these works, but of the rest none produced any.

Therefore passing these by I will make mention of the king who came

after these, whose name is Sesostris. He (the priests said) first of

all set out with ships of war from the Arabian gulf and subdued those

who dwelt by the shores of the Erythraian Sea, until as he sailed he

came to a sea which could no further be navigated by reason of shoals:

then secondly, after he had returned to Egypt, according to the report

of the priests he took a great army and marched over the continent,

subduing every nation which stood in his way: and those of them whom

he found valiant and fighting desperately for their freedom, in their

lands he set up pillars which told by inscriptions his own name and

the name of his country, and how he had subdued them by his power; but

as to those of whose cities he obtained possession without fighting or

with ease, on their pillars he inscribed words after the same tenor as

he did for the nations which had shown themselves courageous, and in

addition he drew upon them the hidden parts of a woman, desiring to

signify by this that the people were cowards and effeminate. Thus

doing he traversed the continent, until at last he passed over to

Europe from Asia and subdued the Scythians and also the Thracians.

These, I am of opinion, were the furthest people to which the Egyptian

army came, for in their country the pillars are found to have been set

up, but in the land beyond this they are no longer found. From this

point he turned and began to go back; and when he came to the river

Phasis, what happened then I cannot say for certain, whether the king

Sesostris himself divided off a certain portion of his army and left

the men there as settlers in the land, or whether some of his soldiers

were wearied by his distant marches and remained by the river Phasis.

For the people of Colchis are evidently Egyptian, and this I perceived

for myself before I heard it from others. So when I had come to

consider the matter I asked them both; and the Colchians had

remembrance of the Egyptians more than the Egyptians of the Colchians;

but the Egyptians said they believed that the Colchians were a portion

of the army of Sesostris. That this was so I conjectured myself not

only because they are dark-skinned and have curly hair (this of itself

amounts to nothing, for there are other races which are so), but also

still more because the Colchians, Egyptians, and Ethiopians alone of

all the races of men have practised circumcision from the first. The

Phenicians and the Syrians who dwell in Palestine confess themselves

that they have learnt it from the Egyptians, and the Syrians about the

river Thermodon and the river Parthenios, and the Macronians, who are

their neighbors, say that they have learnt it lately from the

Colchians. These are the only races of men who practise circumcision,

and these evidently practise it in the same manner as the Egyptians.

Of the Egyptians themselves however and the Ethiopians, I am not able

to say which learnt from the other, for undoubtedly it is a most

ancient custom; but that the other nations learnt it by intercourse

with the Egyptians, this among others is to me a strong proof, namely

that those of the Phenicians who have intercourse with Hellas cease to

follow the example of the Egyptians in this matter, and do not

circumcise their children. Now let me tell another thing about the

Colchians to show how they resemble the Egyptians:--they alone work

flax in the same fashion as the Egyptians, and the two nations are

like one another in their whole manner of living and also in their

language: now the linen of Colchis is called by the Hellenes Sardonic,

whereas that from Egypt is called Egyptian. The pillars which

Sesostris king of Egypt set up in the various countries are for the

most part no longer to be seen extant; but in Syria Palestine I myself

saw them existing with the inscription upon them which I have

mentioned and the emblem. Moreover in Ionia there are two figures of

this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the

land of Ephesos to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to

Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of

four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear

and in his left a bow and arrows, and the other equipment which he has

is similar to this, for it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian: and from

the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription

carved in sacred Egyptian characters, saying thus, "This land with my

shoulders I won for myself." But who he is and from whence, he does

not declare in these places, though in other places he had declared

this. Some of those who have seen these carvings conjecture that the

figure is that of Memnon, but herein they are very far from the truth.

As this Egyptian Sesostris was returning and bringing back many men of

the nations whose lands he had subdued, when he came (said the

priests) to Daphnai in the district of Pelusion on his journey home,

his brother to whom Sesostris had entrusted the charge of Egypt

invited him and with him his sons to a feast; and then he piled the

house round with brushwood and set it on fire: and Sesostris when he

discovered this forthwith took counsel with his wife, for he was

bringing with him (they said) his wife also; and she counselled him to

lay out upon the pyre two of his sons, which were six in number, and

so to make a bridge over the burning mass, and that they passing over

their bodies should thus escape. This, they said, Sesostris did, and

two of his sons were burnt to death in this manner, but the rest got

away safe with their father. Then Sesostris, having returned to Egypt

and having taken vengeance on his brother employed the multitude which

he had brought in of those who whose lands he had subdued, as follows:

--these were they drew the stones which in the reign of this king were

brought to the temple of Hephaistos, being of very good size; and also

these were compelled to dig all the channels which now are in Egypt;

and thus (having no such purpose) they caused Egypt, which before was

all fit for riding and driving, to be no longer fit for this from

thenceforth: for from that time forward Egypt, though it is plain

land, has become all unfit for riding and driving, and the cause has

been these channels, which are many and run in all directions. But the

reason why the king cut up the land was this, namely because those of

the Egyptians who had their cities not on the river but in the middle

of the country, being in want of water when the river went down from

them, found their drink brackish because they had it from wells. For

this reason Egypt was cut up: and they said that this king distributed

the land to all the Egyptians, giving an equal square portion to each

man, and from this he made his revenue, having appointed them to pay a

certain rent every year: and if the river should take away anything

from any man's portion, he would come to the king and declare that

which had happened, and the king used to send men to examine and to

find out by measurement how much less the piece of land had become, in

order that for the future the man might pay less, in proportion to the

rent appointed: and I think that thus the art of geometry was found

out and afterwards came into Hellas also. For as touching the sun-dial

and the gnomon and the twelve divisions of the day, they were learnt

by the Hellenes from the Babylonians. He moreover alone of all the

Egyptian kings had rule over Ethiopia; and he left as memorials of

himself in front of the temple of Hephaistos two stone statues of

thirty cubits each, representing himself and his wife, and others of

twenty cubits each representing his four sons: and long afterwards the

priest of Hephaistos refused to permit Dareios the Persian to set up a

statue of himself in front of them, saying that deeds had not been

done by him equal to those which were done by Sesostris the Egyptian;

for Sesostris had subdued other nations besides, not fewer than he,

and also the Scythians; but Dareios had not been able to conquer the

Scythians: wherefore it was not just that he should set up a statue in

front of those which Sesostris had dedicated, if he did not surpass

him in his deeds. Which speech, they say, Dareios took in good part.

Now after Sesostris had brought his life to an end, his son Pheros,

they told me, received in succession the kingdom, and he made no

warlike expedition, and moreover it chanced to him to become blind by

reason of the following accident:--when the river had come down in

flood rising to a height of eighteen cubits, higher than ever before

that time, and had gone over the fields, a wind fell upon it and the

river became agitated by waves: and this king (they say) moved by

presumptuous folly took a spear and cast it into the midst of the

eddies of the stream; and immediately upon this he had a disease of

the eyes and was by it made blind. For ten years then he was blind,

and in the eleventh year there came to him an oracle from the city of

Buto saying that the time of his punishment had expired, and that he

should see again if he washed his eyes with the water of a woman who

had accompanied with her own husband only and had not had knowledge of

other men: and first he made trial of his own wife, and then, as he

continued blind, he went on to try all the women in turn; and when he

had at least regained his sight he gathered together all the women of

whom he had made trial, excepting her by whose means he had regained

his sight, to one city which now is named Erythrabolos, and having

gathered them to this he consumed them all by fire, as well as the

city itself; but as for her by whose means he had regained his sight,

he had her himself to wife. Then after he had escaped the malady of

his eyes he dedicated offerings at each one of the temples which were

of renown, and especially (to mention only that which is most worthy

of mention) he dedicated at the temple of the Sun works which are

worth seeing, namely two obelisks of stone, each of a single block,

measuring in length a hundred cubits each one and in breadth eight

cubits.

After him, they said, there succeeded to the throne a man of Memphis,

whose name in the tongue of the Hellenes was Proteus; for whom there

is now a sacred enclosure at Memphis, very fair and well ordered,

lying on that side of the temple of Hephaistos which faces the North

Wind. Round about this enclosure dwell Phenicians of Tyre, and this

whole region is called the Camp of the Tyrians. Within the enclosure

of Proteus there is a temple called the temple of the "foreign

Aphrodite," which temple I conjecture to be one of Helen the daughter

of Tyndareus, not only because I have heard the tale how Helen dwelt

with Proteus, but also especially because it is called by the name of

the "foreign Aphrodite," for the other temples of Aphrodite which

there are have none of them the addition of the word "foreign" to the

name.

And the priests told me, when I inquired, that the things concerning

Helen happened thus:--Alexander having carried off Helen was sailing

away from Sparta to his own land, and when he had come to the Egean

Sea contrary winds drove him from his course to the Sea of Egypt; and

after that, since the blasts did not cease to blow, he came to Egypt

itself, and in Egypt to that which is now named the Canobic mouth of

the Nile and to Taricheiai. Now there was upon the shore, as still

there is now, a temple of Heracles, in which if any man's slave take

refuge and have the sacred marks set upon him, giving himself over to

the god, it is not lawful to lay hands upon him; but this custom has

continued still unchanged from the beginning down to my own time.

Accordingly the attendants of Alexander, having heard of the custom

which existed about the temple, ran away from him, and sitting down as

suppliants of the god, accused Alexander, because they desired to do

him hurt, telling the whole tale how things were about Helen and about

the wrong done to Menalaos; and this accusation they made not only to

the priests but also to the warden of this river-mouth, whose name was

Thonis. Thonis then having heard their tale sent forthwith a message

to Proteus at Memphis, which said as follows: "There hath come a

stranger, a Teucrian by race, who hath done in Hellas an unholy deed;

for he hath deceived the wife of his own host, and is come hither

bringing with him this woman herself and very much wealth, having been

carried out of his way by winds to thy land. Shall we then allow him

to sail out unharmed, or shall we first take away from him that which

he brought with him?" In reply to this Proteus sent back a messenger

who said thus: "Seize this man, whosoever he may be, who has done

impiety to his own host, and bring him away into my presence that I

may know what he will find to say." Hearing this, Thonis seized

Alexander and detained his ships, and after that he brought the man

himself up to Memphis and with him Helen and the wealth he had, and

also in addition to them the suppliants. So when all had been conveyed

up thither, Proteus began to ask Alexander who he was and from whence

he was voyaging; and he both recounted to him his descent and told him

the name of his native land, and moreover related of his voyage, from

whence he was sailing. After this Proteus asked him whence he had

taken Helen; and when Alexander went astray n his account and did not

speak the truth, those who had become suppliants convicted him of

falsehood, relating in full the whole tale of the wrong done. At

length Proteus declared to them this sentence, saying, "Were it not

that I count it a matter of great moment not to slay any of those

strangers who being driven from their course by winds have come to my

land hitherto, I should have taken vengeance on thee on behalf of the

man of Hellas, seeing that thou, most base of men, having received

from him hospitality, didst work against him a most impious deed. For

thou didst go in to the wife of thine own host; and even this was not

enough for thee, but thou didst stir her up with desire and hast gone

away with her like a thief. Moreover not even this by itself was

enough for thee, but thou art come hither with plunder taken from the

house of thy host. Now therefore depart, seeing that I have counted it

of great moment not to be a slayer of strangers. This woman indeed and

the wealth which thou hast I will not allow thee to carry away, but I

shall keep them safe for the Hellene who was thy host, until he come

himself and desire to carry them off to his home; to thyself however

and thy fellow-voyagers I proclaim that ye depart from your anchoring

within three days and go from my land to some other; and if not, that

ye will be dealt with as enemies."

This the priests said was the manner of Helen's coming to Proteus; and

I suppose that Homer also had heard this story, but since it was not

so suitable to the composition of his poem as the other which he

followed, he dismissed it finally, making it clear at the same time

that he was acquainted with that story also: and according to the

manner in which he described the wanderings of Alexander in the Iliad

(nor did he elsewhere retract that which he had said) of his course,

wandering to various lands, and that he came among other places to

Sidon in Phenicia. Of this the poet has made mention in the "prowess

of Diomede," and the verses run thus:

"There she had robes many-coloured, the works of women of Sidon,

Those whom her son himself the god-like of form Alexander

Carried from Sidon, what time the broad sea-path he sailed over

Bringing back Helene home, of a noble father begotten."

And in the Odyssey also he has made mention of it in these verses:

"Such had the daughter of Zeus, such drugs of exquisite cunning,

Good, which to her the wife of Thon, Polydamna, had given,

Dwelling in Egypt, the land where the bountiful meadow produces

Drugs more than all lands else, many good being mixed, many evil."

And thus too Menelaos says to Telemachos:

"Still the gods stayed me in Egypt, to come back hither desiring,

Stayed me from voyaging home, since sacrifice due I performed not."

In these lines he makes it clear that he knew of the wanderings of

Alexander to Egypt, for Syria borders upon Egypt and the Phenicians,

of whom is Sidon, dwell in Syria. By these lines and by this passage

it is also most clearly shown that the "Cyprian Epic" was not written

by Homer but by some other man: for in this it is said that on the

third day after leaving Sparta Alexander came to Ilion bringing with

him Helen, having had a "gently-blowing wind and a smooth sea,"

whereas in the Iliad it says that he wandered from his course when he

brought her.

Let us now leave Homer and the "Cyprian Epic"; but this I will say,

namely that I asked the priests whether it is but an idle tale which

the Hellenes tell of that which they say happened about Ilion; and

they answered me thus, saying that they had their knowledge by

inquiries from Menelaos himself. After the rape of Helen there came

indeed, they said, to the Teucrian land a large army of Hellenes to

help Menelaos; and when the army had come out of the ships to land and

had pitched its camp there, they sent messengers to Ilion, with whom

went also Menelaos himself; and when these entered within the wall

they demanded back Helen and the wealth which Alexander had stolen

from Menelaos and had taken away; and moreover they demanded

satisfaction for the wrongs done: and the Teucrians told the same tale

then and afterwards, both with oath and without oath, namely that in

deed and in truth they had not Helen nor the wealth for which demand

was made, but that both were in Egypt; and that they could not justly

be compelled to give satisfaction for that which Proteus the king of

Egypt had. The Hellenes however thought that they were being mocked by

them and besieged the city, until at last they took it; and when they

had taken the wall and did not find Helen, but heard the same tale as

before, then they believed the former tale and sent Menelaos himself

to Proteus. And Menelaos having come to Egypt and having sailed up to

Memphis, told the truth of these matters, and not only found great

entertainment, but also received Helen unhurt, and all his own wealth

besides. Then, however, after he had been thus dealt with, Menelaos

showed himself ungrateful to the Egyptians; for when he set forth to

sail away, contrary winds detained him, and as this condition of

things lasted long, he devised an impious deed; for he took two

children of natives and made sacrifice of them. After this, when it

was known that he had done so, he became abhorred, and being pursued

he escaped and got away in his ships to Libya; but whither he went

besides after this, the Egyptians were not able to tell. Of these

things they said that they found out part by inquiries, and the rest,

namely that which happened in their own land, they related from sure

and certain knowledge.

Thus the priests of the Egyptians told me; and I myself also agree

with the story which was told of Helen, adding this consideration,

namely that if Helen had been in Ilion she would have been given up to

the Hellenes, whether Alexander consented or no; for Priam assuredly

was not so mad, nor yet the others of his house, that they were

desirous to run risk of ruin for themselves and their children and

their city, in order that Alexander might have Helen as his wife: and

even supposing that during the first part of the time they had been so

inclined, yet when many others of the Trojans besides were losing

their lives as often as they fought with the Hellenes, and of the sons

of Priam himself always two or three or even more were slain when a

battle took place (if one may trust at all to the Epic poets),--when,

I say, things were coming thus to pass, I consider that even if Priam

himself had had Helen as his wife, he would have given her back to the

Achaians, if at least by so doing he might be freed from the evils

which oppressed him. Nor even was the kingdom coming to Alexander

next, so that when Priam was old the government was in his hands; but

Hector, who was both older and more of a man than he, would certainly

have received it after the death of Priam; and him it behoved not to

allow his brother to go on with his wrong-doing, considering that

great evils were coming to pass on his account both to himself

privately and in general to the other Trojans. In truth however they

lacked the power to give Helen back; and the Hellenes did not believe

them, though they spoke the truth; because, as I declare my opinion,

the divine power was purposing to cause them utterly to perish, and so

make it evident to men that for great wrongs great also are the

chastisements which come from the gods. And thus have I delivered my

opinion concerning these matters.

After Proteus, they told me, Rhampsinitos received in succession the

kingdom, who left as a memorial of himself that gateway to the temple

of Hephaistos which is turned towards the West, and in front of the

gateway he set up two statues, in height five-and-twenty cubits, of

which the one which stands on the North side is called by the

Egyptians Summer and the one on the South side Winter; and to that one

which they call Summer they do reverence and make offerings, while to

the other which is called Winter they do the opposite of these things.

This king, they said, got great wealth of silver, which none of the

kings born after him could surpass or even come near to; and wishing

to store his wealth in safety he caused to be built a chamber of

stone, one of the walls whereof was towards the outside of his palace:

and the builder of this, having a design against it, contrived as

follows, that is, he disposed one of the stones in such a manner that

it could be taken out easily from the wall either by two men or even

by one. So when the chamber was finished, the king stored his money in

it, and after some time the builder, being near the end of his life,

called to him his sons (for he had two) and to them he related how he

had contrived in building the treasury of the king, and all in

forethought for them, that they might have ample means of living. And

when he had clearly set forth to them everything concerning the taking

out of the stone, he gave them the measurements, saying that if they

paid heed to this matter they would be stewards of the king's

treasury. So he ended his life, and his sons made no long delay in

setting to work, but went to the palace by night, and having found the

stone in the wall of the chamber they dealt with it easily and carried

forth for themselves great quantity of the wealth within. And the king

happening to open the chamber, he marvelled when he saw the vessels

falling short of the full amount, and he did not know on whom he

should lay the blame, since the seals were unbroken and the chamber

had been close shut; but when upon his opening the chamber a second

and a third time the money was each time seen to be diminished, for

the thieves did not slacken in their assaults upon it, he did as

follows:--having ordered traps to be made he set these round about the

vessels in which the money was; and when the thieves had come as at

former times and one of them had entered, then so soon as he came near

to one of the vessels he was straightway caught in the trap: and when

he perceived in what evil case he was, straightway calling his brother

he showed him what the matter was, and bade him enter as quickly as

possible and cut off his head, for fear lest being seen and known he

might bring about the destruction of his brother also. And to the

other it seemed that he spoke well, and he was persuaded and did so;

and fitting the stone into its place he departed home bearing with him

the head of his brother. Now when it became day, the king entered into

the chamber and was very greatly amazed, seeing the body of the thief

held in the trap without his head, and the chamber unbroken, with no

way to come in by or go out: and being at a loss he hung up the dead

body of the thief upon the wall and set guards there, with charge if

they saw any one weeping or bewailing himself to seize him and bring

him before the king. And when the dead body had been hung up, the

mother was greatly grieved, and speaking with the son who survived she

enjoined him, in whatever way he could, to contrive means by which he

might take down and bring home the body of his brother; and if he

should neglect to do this, she earnestly threatened that she would go

and give information to the king that he had the money. So as the

mother dealt hardly with the surviving son, and he though saying many

things to her did not persuade her, he contrived for his purpose a

device as follows:--Providing himself with asses he filled some skins

with wine and laid them upon the asses, and after that he drove them

along: and when he came opposite to those who were guarding the corpse

hung up, he drew towards him two or three of the necks of the skins

and loosened the cords with which they were tied. Then when the wine

was running out, he began to beat his head and cry out loudly, as if

he did not know to which of the asses he should first turn; and when

the guards saw the wine flowing out in streams, they ran together to

the road with drinking vessels in their hands and collected the wine

that was poured out, counting it so much gain; and he abused them all

violently, making as if he were angry, but when the guards tried to

appease him, after a time he feigned to be pacified and to abate his

anger, and at length he drove his asses out of the road and began to

set their loads right. Then more talk arose among them, and one or two

of them made jests at him and brought him to laugh with them; and in

the end he made them a present of one of the skins in addition to what

they had. Upon that they lay down there without more ado, being minded

to drink, and they took him into their company and invited him to

remain with them and join them in their drinking: so he (as may be

supposed) was persuaded and stayed. Then as they in their drinking

bade him welcome in a friendly manner, he made a present to them also

of another of the skins; and so at length having drunk liberally the

guards became completely intoxicated; and being overcome by sleep they

went to bed on the spot where they had been drinking. He then, as it

was now far on in the night, first took down the body of his brother,

and then in mockery shaved the right cheeks of all the guards; and

after that he put the dead body upon the asses and drove them away

home, having accomplished that which was enjoined him by his mother.

Upon this the king, when it was reported to him that the dead body of

the thief had been stolen away, displayed great anger; and desiring by

all means that it should be found out who it might be who devised

these things, did this (so at least they said, but I do not believe

the account),--he caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and

enjoined her to receive all equally, and before having commerce with

any one to compel him to tell her what was the most cunning and what

the most unholy deed which had been done by him in all his life-time;

and whosoever should relate that which had happened about the thief,

him she must seize and not let him go out. Then as she was doing that

which was enjoined by her father, the thief, hearing for what purpose

this was done and having a desire to get the better of the king in

resource, did thus:--from the body of one lately dead he cut off the

arm at the shoulder and went with it under his mantle: and having gone

in to the daughter of the king, and being asked that which the others

also were asked, he related that he had done the most unholy deed when

he cut off the head of his brother, who had been caught in a trap in

the king's treasure-chamber, and the most cunning deed in that he made

drunk the guards and took down the dead body of his brother hanging

up; and she when she heard it tried to take hold of him, but the thief

held out to her in the darkness the arm of the corpse, which she

grasped and held, thinking that she was holding the arm of the man

himself; but the thief left it in her hands and departed, escaping

through the door. Now when this also was reported to the king, he was

at first amazed at the ready invention and daring of the fellow, and

then afterwards he sent round to all the cities and made proclamation

granting a free pardon to the thief, and also promising a great reward

if he would come into his presence. The thief accordingly trusting to

the proclamation came to the king, and Rhampsinitos greatly marvelled

at him, and gave him this daughter of his to wife, counting him to be

the most knowing of all men; for as the Egyptians were distinguished

from all other men, so was he from the other Egyptians.

After these things they said this king went down alive to that place

which by the Hellenes is called Hades, and there played at dice with

Demeter, and in some throws he overcame her and in others he was

overcome by her; and he came back again having as a gift from her a

handkerchief of gold: and they told me that because of the going down

of Rhampsinitos the Egyptians after he came back celebrated a feast,

which I know of my own knowledge also that they still observe even to

my time; but whether it is for this cause that they keep the feast or

for some other, I am not able to say. However, the priests weave a

robe completely on the very day of the feast, and forthwith they bind

up the eyes of one of them with a fillet, and having led him with the

robe to the way by which one goes to the temple of Demeter, they

depart back again themselves. This priest, they say, with his eyes

bound up is led by two wolves to the temple of Demeter, which is

distant from the city twenty furlongs, and then afterwards the wolves

lead him back again from the temple to the same spot. Now as to the

tales told by the Egyptians, any man may accept them to whom such

things appear credible; as for me, it is to be understood throughout

the whole of the history that I write by hearsay that which is

reported by the people in each place. The Egyptians say that Demeter

and Dionysos are rulers of the world below; and the Egyptians are also

the first who reported the doctrine that the soul of man is immortal,

and that when the body dies, the soul enters into another creature

which chances then to be coming to the birth, and when it has gone the

round of all the creatures of land and sea and of the air, it enters

again into a human body as it comes to the birth; and that it makes

this round in a period of three thousand years. This doctrine certain

Hellenes adopted, some earlier and some later, as if it were of their

own invention, and of these men I know the names but I abstain from

recording them.

Down to the time when Rhampsinitos was king, they told me there was in

Egypt nothing but orderly rule, and Egypt prospered greatly; but after

him Cheops became king over them and brought them to every kind of

evil: for he shut up all the temples, and having first kept them from

sacrifices there, he then bade all the Egyptians work for him. So some

were appointed to draw stones from the stone-quarries in the Arabian

mountains to the Nile, and others he ordered to receive the stones

after they had been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them

to those which are called the Libyan mountains; and they worked by a

hundred thousand men at a time, for each three months continually. Of

this oppression there passed ten years while the causeway was made by

which they drew the stones, which causeway they built, and it is a

work not much less, as it appears to me, than the pyramid; for the

length of it is five furlongs and the breadth ten fathoms and the

height, where it is highest, eight fathoms, and it is made of stone

smoothed and with figures carved upon it. For this they said, the ten

years were spent, and for the underground he caused to be made as

sepulchral chambers for himself in an island, having conducted thither

a channel from the Nile. For the making of the pyramid itself there

passed a period of twenty years; and the pyramid is square, each side

measuring eight hundred feet, and the height of it is the same. It is

built of stone smoothed and fitted together in the most perfect

manner, not one of the stones being less than thirty feet in length.

This pyramid was made after the manner of steps which some called

"rows" and others "bases": and when they had first made it thus, they

raised the remaining stones with machines made of short pieces of

timber, raising them first from the ground to the first stage of the

steps, and when the stone got up to this it was placed upon another

machine standing on the first stage, and so from this it was drawn to

the second upon another machine; for as many as were the courses of

the steps, so many machines there were also, or perhaps they

transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily to be carried,

to each stage successively, in order that they might take up the

stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it is reported.

However that may be the highest parts of it were finished first, and

afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to them, and

lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the lowest

ranges. On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how much was

spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if I

rightly remember that which the interpreter said in reading to me this

inscription, a sum of one thousand six hundred talents of silver was

spent; and if this is so, how much besides is likely to have been

expended upon the iron with which they worked, and upon bread and

clothing for the workmen, seeing that they were building the works for

the time which has been mentioned and were occupied for no small time

besides, as I suppose, in the cutting and bringing of the stones and

in working at the excavation under the ground? Cheops moreover came,

they said, to such a pitch of wickedness, that being in want of money

he caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and ordered her to

obtain from those who came a certain amount of money (how much it was

they did not tell me): and she not only obtained the sum appointed by

her father, but also she formed a design for herself privately to

leave behind her a memorial, and she requested each man who came in to

give her one stone upon her building: and of these stones, they told

me, the pyramid was built which stands in front of the great pyramid

in the middle of the three, each side being one hundred and fifty feet

in length.

This Cheops, the Egyptians said, reigned fifty years; and after he was

dead his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom. This king followed

the same manner of dealing as the other, both in all the rest and also

in that he made a pyramid, not indeed attaining to the measurements of

that which was built by the former (this I know, having myself also

measured it), and moreover there are no underground chambers beneath

nor does a channel come from the Nile flowing to this one as to the

other, in which the water coming through a conduit built for it flows

round an island within, where they say that Cheops himself is laid:

but for a basement he built the first course of Ethiopian stone of

divers colours; and this pyramid he made forty feet lower than the

other as regards size, building it close to the great pyramid. These

stand both upon the same hill, which is about a hundred feet high. And

Chephren they said reigned fifty and six years. Here then they reckon

one hundred and six years, during which they say that there was

nothing but evil for the Egyptians, and the temples were kept closed

and not opened during all that time. These kings the Egyptians by

reason of their hatred of them are not very willing to name; nay, they

even call the pyramids after the name of Philitis the shepherd, who at

that time pastured flocks in those regions. After him, they said,

Mykerinos became king over Egypt, who was the son of Cheops; and to

him his father's deeds were displeasing, and he both opened the

temples and gave liberty to the people, who were ground down to the

last extremity of evil, to return to their own business and to their

sacrifices: also he gave decisions of their causes juster than those

of all the other kings besides. In regard to this then they commend

this king more than all the other kings who had arisen in Egypt before

him; for he not only gave good decisions, but also when a man

complained of the decision, he gave him recompense from his own goods

and thus satisfied his desire. But while Mykerinos was acting

mercifully to his subjects and practising this conduct which has been

said, calamities befell him, of which the first was this, namely that

his daughter died, the only child whom he had in his house: and being

above measure grieved by that which had befallen him, and desiring to

bury his daughter in a manner more remarkable than others, he made a

cow of wood, which he covered over with gold, and then within it he

buried this daughter who as I said, had died. This cow was not covered

up in the ground, but it might be seen even down to my own time in the

city of Sais, placed within the royal palace in a chamber which was

greatly adorned; and they offer incense of all kinds before it every

day, and each night a lamp burns beside it all through the night. Near

this cow in another chamber stand images of the concubines of

Mykerinos, as the priests at Sais told me; for there are in fact

colossal wooden statues, in number about twenty, made with naked

bodies; but who they are I am not able to say, except only that which

is reported. Some however tell about this cow and the colossal statues

the following tale, namely that Mykerinos was enamoured of his own

daughter and afterwards ravished her; and upon this they say that the

girl strangled herself for grief, and he buried her in this cow; and

her mother cut off the hands of the maids who had betrayed the

daughter to her father; wherefore now the images of them have suffered

that which the maids suffered in their life. In thus saying they speak

idly, as it seems to me, especially in what they say about the hands

of the statues; for as to this, even we ourselves saw that their hands

had dropped off from lapse of time, and they were to be seen still

lying at their feet even down to my time. The cow is covered up with a

crimson robe, except only the head and the neck, which are seen,

overlaid with gold very thickly; and between the horns there is the

disc of the sun figured in gold. The cow is not standing up but

kneeling, and in size is equal to a large living cow. Every year it is

carried forth from the chamber, at those times, I say, the Egyptians

beat themselves for that god whom I will not name upon occasion of

such a matter; at these times, I say, they also carry forth the cow to

the light of day, for they say that she asked of her father Mykerinos,

when she was dying, that she might look upon the sun once in the year.

After the misfortune of his daughter it happened, they said, secondly

to this king as follows:--An oracle came to him from the city of Buto,

saying that he was destined to live but six years more, in the seventh

year to end his life: and he being indignant at it sent to the Oracle

a reproach against the god, making complaint in reply that whereas his

father and uncle, who had shut up the temples and had not only not

remembered the gods, but also had been destroyers of men, had lived

for a long time, he himself, who practised piety, was destined to end

his life so soon: and from the Oracle came a second message, which

said that it was for this very cause that he was bringing his life to

a swift close; for he had not done that which it was appointed for him

to do, since it was destined that Egypt should suffer evils for a

hundred and fifty years, and the two kings who had arisen before him

had perceived this, but he had not. Mykerinos having heard this, and

considering that this sentence had passed upon him beyond recall,

procured many lamps, and whenever night came on he lighted these and

began to drink and take his pleasure, ceasing neither by day nor by

night; and he went about to the fen-country and to the woods and

wherever he heard there were the most suitable places of enjoyment.

This he devised (having a mind to prove that the Oracle spoke falsely)

in order that he might have twelve years of life instead of six, the

nights being turned into days.

This king also left behind him a pyramid, much smaller than that of

his father, of a square shape and measuring on each side three hundred

feet lacking twenty, built moreover of Ethiopian stone up to half the

height. This pyramid some of the Hellenes say was built by the

courtesan Rhodopis, not therein speaking rightly: and besides this it

is evident to me that they who speak thus do not even know who

Rhodopis was, for otherwise they would not have attributed to her the

building of a pyramid like this, on which have been spent (so to

speak) innumerable thousands of talents: moreover they do not know

that Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, and not in this

king's reign; for Rhodopis lived very many years later than the kings

who left behind them these pyramids. By descent she was of Thrace, and

she was a slave of Iadmon the son of Hephaistopolis a Samian, and a

fellow-slave of Esop the maker of fables; for he too was once the

slave of Iadmon, as was proved especially by this fact, namely that

when the people of Delphi repeatedly made proclamation in accordance

with an oracle, to find some one who would take up the blood-money for

the death of Esop, no one else appeared, but at length the grandson of

Iadmon, called Iadmon also, took it up; and thus it is showed that

Esop too was the slave of Iadmon. As for Rhodopis, she came to Egypt

brought by Xanthes the Samian, and having come thither to exercise her

calling she was redeemed from slavery for a great sum by a man of

Mytilene, Charaxos son of Scamandronymos and brother of Sappho the

lyric poet. Thus was Rhodopis set free, and she remained in Egypt and

by her beauty won so much liking that she made great gain of money for

one like Rhodopis, though not enough to suffice for the cost of such a

pyramid as this. In truth there is no need to ascribe to her very

great riches, considering that the tithe of her wealth may still be

seen even to this time by any one who desires it: for Rhodopis wished

to leave behind her a memorial of herself in Hellas, namely to cause a

thing to be made such as happens not to have been thought of or

dedicated in a temple by any besides, and to dedicate this at Delphi

as a memorial of herself. Accordingly with the tithe of her wealth she

caused to be made spits of iron of size large enough to pierce a whole

ox, and many in number, going as far therein as her tithe allowed her,

and she sent them to Delphi: these are even at the present time lying

there, heaped all together behind the altar which the Chians

dedicated, and just opposite to the cell of the temple. Now at

Naucratis, as it happens, the courtesans are rather apt to win credit;

for this woman first, about whom the story to which I refer is told,

became so famous that all the Hellenes without exception came to know

the name of Rhodopis, and then after her one whose name was Archidiche

became a subject of song all over Hellas, though she was less talked

of than the other. As for Charaxos, when after redeeming Rhodopis he

returned back to Mytilene, Sappho in an ode violently abused him. Of

Rhodopis then I shall say no more.

After Mykerinos the priests said Asychis became king of Egypt, and he

made for Hephaistos the temple gateway which is towards the sunrising,

by far the most beautiful and the largest of the gateways; for while

they all have figures carved upon them and innumerable ornaments of

building besides, this has them very much more than the rest. In this

king's reign they told me that, as the circulation of money was very

slow, a law was made for the Egyptians that a man might have that

money lent to him which he needed, by offering as security the dead

body of his father; and there was added moreover to this law another,

namely that he who lent the money should have a claim also to the

whole of the sepulchral chamber belonging to him who received it, and

that the man who offered that security should be subject to this

penalty, if he refused to pay back the debt, namely that neither the

man himself should be allowed to have burial, when he died, either in

that family burial-place or in any other, nor should he be allowed to

bury any of his kinsmen whom he lost by death. This king desiring to

surpass the kings of Egypt who had arisen before him left as a

memorial of himself a pyramid which he made of bricks and on it there

is an inscription carved in stone and saying thus: "Despise not me in

comparison with the pyramids of stone, seeing that I excel them as

much as Zeus excels the other gods; for with a pole they struck into

the lake, and whatever of the mud attached itself to the pole, this

they gathered up and made bricks, and in such manner they finished

me."

Such were the deeds which this king performed: and after him reigned a

blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name was Anysis. In his reign

the Ethiopians and Sabacos the king of the Ethiopians marched upon

Egypt with a great host of men; so this blind man departed, flying to

the fen-country, and the Ethiopian was king over Egypt for fifty

years, during which he performed deeds as follows:--whenever any man

of the Egyptians committed any transgression, he would never put him

to death, but he gave sentence upon each man according to the

greatness of the wrong-doing, appointing them to work at throwing up

an embankment before that city from whence each man came of those who

committed wrong. Thus the cities were made higher still than before;

for they were embanked first by those who dug the channels in the

reign of Sesostris, and then secondly in the reign of the Ethiopian,

and thus they were made very high: and while other cities in Egypt

also stood high, I think in the town at Bubastis especially the earth

was piled up. In this city there is a temple very well worthy of

mention, for though there are other temples which are larger and build

with more cost, none more than this is a pleasure to the eyes. Now

Bubastis in the Hellenic tongue is Artemis, and her temple is ordered

thus:--Except the entrance it is completely surrounded by water; for

channels come in from the Nile, not joining one another, but each

extending as far as the entrance of the temple, one flowing round on

the one side and the other on the other side, each a hundred feet

broad and shaded over with trees; and the gateway has a height of ten

fathoms, and it is adorned with figures six cubits high, very

noteworthy. This temple is in the middle of the city and is looked

down upon from all sides as one goes round, for since the city has

been banked up to a height, while the temple has not been moved from

the place where it was at the first built, it is possible to look down

into it: and round it runs a stone wall with figures carved upon it,

while within it there is a grove of very large trees planted round a

large temple-house, within which is the image of the goddess: and the

breadth and length of the temple is a furlong every way. Opposite the

entrance there is a road paved with stone for about three furlongs,

which leads through the market-place towards the East, with a breadth

of about four hundred feet; and on this side and on that grow trees of

height reaching to heaven: and the road leads to the temple of Hermes.

This temple then is thus ordered.

The final deliverance from the Ethiopian came about (they said) as

follows:--he fled away because he had seen in his sleep a vision, in

which it seemed to him that a man came and stood by him and counselled

him to gather together all the priests in Egypt and cut them asunder

in the midst. Having seen this dream, he said that it seemed to him

that the gods were foreshowing him this to furnish an occasion against

him, in order that he might do an impious deed with respect to

religion, and so receive some evil either from the gods or from men:

he would not however do so, but in truth (he said) the time had

expired, during which it had been prophesied to him that he should

rule Egypt before he departed thence. For when he was in Ethiopia the

Oracles which the Ethiopians consult had told him that it was fated

for him to rule Egypt fifty years: since then this time was now

expiring, and the vision of the dream also disturbed him, Sabacos

departed out of Egypt of his own free will.

Then when the Ethiopian had gone away out of Egypt, the blind man came

back from the fen-country and began to rule again, having lived there

during fifty years upon an island which he had made by heaping up

ashes and earth: for whenever any of the Egyptians visited him

bringing food, according as it had been appointed to them severally to

do without the knowledge of the Ethiopian, he bade them bring also

some ashes for their gift. This island none was able to find before

Amyrtaios; that is, for more than seven hundred years the kings who

arose before Amyrtaios were not able to find it. Now the name of this

island is Elbo, and its size is ten furlongs each way.

After him there came to the throne the priest of Hephaistos, whose

name was Sethos. This man, they said, neglected and held in no regard

the warrior class of the Egyptians, considering that he would have no

need of them; and besides other slights which he put upon them, he

also took from them the yokes of corn-land which had been given to

them as a special gift in the reigns of the former kings, twelve yokes

to each man. After this, Sanacharib king of the Arabians and of the

Assyrians marched a great host against Egypt. Then the warriors of the

Egyptians refused to come to the rescue, and the priest, being driven

into a strait, entered into the sanctuary of the temple and bewailed

to the image of the god the danger which was impending over him; and

as he was thus lamenting, sleep came upon him, and it seemed to him in

his vision that the god came and stood by him and encouraged him,

saying that he should suffer no evil if he went forth to meet the army

of the Arabians; for he would himself send him helpers. Trusting in

these things seen in sleep, he took with him, they said, those of the

Egyptians who were willing to follow him, and encamped in Pelusion,

for by this way the invasion came: and not one of the warrior class

followed him, but shop-keepers and artisans and men of the market.

Then after they came, there swarmed by night upon their enemies mice

of the fields, and ate up their quivers and their bows, and moreover

the handles of their shields, so that on the next day they fled, and

being without defence of arms great numbers fell. And at the present

time this king stands in the temple of Hephaistos in stone, holding

upon his hand a mouse, and by letters inscribed he says these words:

"Let him who looks upon me learn to fear the gods."

So far in the story the Egyptians and the priests were they who made

the report, declaring that from the first king down to this priest of

Hephaistos who reigned last, there had been three hundred and forty-

one generations of men, and that in them there had been the same

number of chief-priests and of kings: but three hundred generations of

men are equal to ten thousand years, for a hundred years is three

generations of men; and in the one-and-forty generations which remain,

those I mean which were added to the three hundred, there are one

thousand three hundred and forty years. Thus in the period of eleven

thousand three hundred and forty years they said that there had arisen

no god in human form; nor even before that time or afterwards among

the remaining kings who arise in Egypt, did they report that anything

of that kind had come to pass. In this time they said that the sun had

moved four times from his accustomed place of rising, and where he now

sets he had thence twice had his rising, and in the place from whence

he now rises he had twice had his setting; and in the meantime nothing

in Egypt had been changed from its usual state, neither that which

comes from the earth nor that which comes to them from the river nor

that which concerns diseases or deaths. And formerly when Hecataios

the historian was in Thebes, and had traced his descent and connected

his family with a god in the sixteenth generation before, the priests

of Zeus did for him much the same as they did for me (though I had not

traced my descent). They led me into the sanctuary of the temple,

which is of great size, and they counted up the number, showing

colossal wooden statues in number the same as they said; for each

chief-priest there sets up in his lifetime an image of himself:

accordingly the priests, counting and showing me these, declared to me

that each one of them was a son succeeding his own father, and they

went up through the series of images from the image of the one who had

died last, until they had declared this of the whole number. And when

Hecataios had traced his descent and connected his family with a god

in the sixteenth generation, they traced a descent in opposition to

his, besides their numbering, not accepting it from him that a man had

been born from a god; and they traced their counter-descent thus,

saying that each one of the statues had been /piromis/ son of

/piromis/, until they had declared this of the whole three hundred and

forty-five statues, each one being surnamed /piromis/; and neither

with a god nor a hero did they connect their descent. Now /piromis/

means in the tongue of Hellas "honourable and good man." From their

declaration then it followed, that they of whom the images were had

been of form like this, and far removed from being gods: but in the

time before these men they said that gods were the rulers in Egypt,

not mingling with men, and that of these always one had power at a

time; and the last of them who was king over Egypt was Oros the son of

Osiris, whom the Hellenes call Apollo: he was king over Egypt last,

having deposed Typhon. Now Osiris in the tongue of Hellas is Dionysos.

Among the Hellenes Heracles and Dionysos and Pan are accounted the

lastest-born of the gods; but with the Egyptians Pan is a very ancient

god, and he is one of those which are called eight gods, while

Heracles is of the second rank, who are called the twelve gods, and

Dionysos is of the third rank, namely of those who were born of the

twelve gods. Now as to Heracles I have shown already how many years

old he is according to the Egyptians themselves, reckoning down to the

reign of Amasis, and Pan is said to have existed for yet more years

than these, and Dionysos for the smallest number of years as compared

with the others; and even for this last they reckon down to the reign

of Amasis fifteen thousand years. This the Egyptians say that they

know for a certainty, since they always kept a reckoning and wrote

down the years as they came. Now the Dionysos who is said to have been

born of Semele the daughter of Cadmos, was born about sixteen hundred

years before my time, and Heracles who was the son of Alcmene, about

nine hundred years, and that Pan who was born of Penelope, for of her

and of Hermes Pan is said by the Hellenes to have been born, came into

being later than the wars of Troy, about eight hundred years before my

time. Of these two accounts every man may adopt that one which he

shall find the more credible when he hears it. I however, for my part,

have already declared my opinion about them. For if these also, like

Heracles the son of Amphitryon, had appeared before all men's eyes and

had lived their lives to old age in Hellas, I mean Dionysos the son of

Semele and Pan the son of Penelope, then one would have said that

these also had been born mere men, having the names of those gods who

had come into being long before: but as it is, with regard to Dionysos

the Hellenes say that as soon as he was born Zeus sewed him up in his

thigh and carried him to Nysa, which is above Egypt in the land of

Ethiopia; and as to Pan, they cannot say whither he went after he was

born. Hence it has become clear to me that the Hellenes learnt the

names of these gods later than those of the other gods, and trace

their descent as if their birth occurred at the time when they first

learnt their names.

Thus far then the history is told by the Egyptians themselves; but I

will now recount that which other nations also tell, and the Egyptians

in agreement with the others, of that which happened in this land: and

there will be added to this also something of that which I have myself

seen.

Being set free after the reign of the priest of Hephaistos, the

Egyptians, since they could not live any time without a king, set up

over them twelve kings, having divided all Egypt into twelve parts.

These made intermarriages with one another and reigned, making

agreement that they would not put down one another by force, nor seek

to get an advantage over one another, but would live in perfect

friendship: and the reason why they made these agreements, guarding

them very strongly from violation, was this, namely that an oracle had

been given to them at first when they began to exercise their rule,

that he of them who should pour a libation with a bronze cup in the

temple of Hephaistos, should be king of all Egypt (for they used to

assemble together in all the temples). Moreover they resolved to join

all together and leave a memorial of themselves; and having so

resolved they caused to be made a labyrinth, situated a little above

the lake of Moiris and nearly opposite to that which is called the

City of Crocodiles. This I saw myself, and I found it greater than

words can say. For if one should put together and reckon up all the

buildings and all the great works produced by Hellenes, they would

prove to be inferior in labour and expense to this labyrinth, though

it is true that both the temple at Ephesos and that at Samos are works

worthy of note. The pyramids also were greater than words can say, and

each one of them is equal to many works of the Hellenes, great as they

may be; but the labyrinth surpasses even the pyramids. It has twelve

courts covered in, with gates facing one another, six upon the North

side and six upon the South, joining on one to another, and the same

wall surrounds them all outside; and there are in it two kinds of

chambers, the one kind below the ground and the other above upon

these, three thousand in number, of each kind fifteen hundred. The

upper set of chambers we ourselves saw, going through them, and we

tell of them having looked upon them with our own eyes; but the

chambers under ground we heard about only; for the Egyptians who had

charge of them were not willing on any account to show them, saying

that here were the sepulchres of the kings who had first built this

labyrinth and of the sacred crocodiles. Accordingly we speak of the

chambers below by what we received from hearsay, while those above we

saw ourselves and found them to be works of more than human greatness.

For the passages through the chambers, and the goings this way and

that way through the courts, which were admirably adorned, afforded

endless matter for marvel, as we went through from a court to the

chambers beyond it, and from the chambers to colonnades, and from the

colonnades to other rooms, and then from the chambers again to other

courts. Over the whole of these is a roof made of stone like the

walls; and the walls are covered with figures carved upon them, each

court being surrounded with pillars of white stone fitted together

most perfectly; and at the end of the labyrinth, by the corner of it,

there is a pyramid of forty fathoms, upon which large figures are

carved, and to this there is a way made under ground.

Such is this labyrinth: but a cause for marvel even greater than this

is afforded by the lake, which is called the lake of Moiris, along the

side of which this labyrinth is built. The measure of its circuit is

three thousand six hundred furlongs (being sixty /schoines/), and this

is the same number of furlongs as the extent of Egypt itself along the

sea. The lake lies extended lengthwise from North to South, and in

depth where it is deepest it is fifty fathoms. That this lake is

artificial and formed by digging is self-evident, for about in the

middle of the lake stand two pyramids, each rising above the water to

a height of fifty fathoms, the part which is built below the water

being of just the same height; and upon each is placed a colossal

statue of stone sitting upon a chair. Thus the pyramids are a hundred

fathoms high; and these hundred fathoms are equal to a furlong of six

hundred feet, the fathom being measured as six feet or four cubits,

the feet being four palms each, and the cubits six. The water in the

lake does not come from the place where it is, for the country there

is very deficient in water, but it has been brought thither from the

Nile by a canal; and for six months the water flows into the lake, and

for six months out into the Nile again; and whenever it flows out,

then for the six months it brings into the royal treasury a talent of

silver a day from the fish which are caught, and twenty pounds when

the water comes in. The natives of the place moreover said that this

lake had an outlet under ground to the Syrtis which is in Libya,

turning towards the interior of the continent upon the Western side

and running along by the mountain which is above Memphis. Now since I

did not see anywhere existing the earth dug out of this excavation

(for that was a matter which drew my attention), I asked those who

dwelt nearest to the lake where the earth was which had been dug out.

These told me to what place it had been carried away; and I readily

believed them, for I knew by report that a similar thing had been done

at Nineveh, the city of the Assyrians. There certain thieves formed a

design once to carry away the wealth of Sardanapallos son of Ninos,

the king, which wealth was very great and was kept in treasure-houses

under the earth. Accordingly they began from their own dwelling, and

making estimate of their direction they dug under ground towards the

king's palace; and the earth which was brought out of the excavation

they used to carry away, when night came on, to the river Tigris which

flows by the city of Nineveh, until at last they accomplished that

which they desired. Similarly, as I heard, the digging of the lake in

Egypt was effected, except that it was done not by night but during

the day; for as they dug the Egyptians carried to the Nile the earth

which was dug out; and the river, when it received it, would naturally

bear it away and disperse it. Thus is this lake said to have been dug

out.

Now the twelve kings continued to rule justly, but in course of time

it happened thus:--After sacrifice in the temple of Hephaistos they

were about to make libation on the last day of the feast, and the

chief-priest, in bringing out for them the golden cups with which they

had been wont to pour libations, missed his reckoning and brought

eleven only for the twelve kings. Then that one of them who was

standing last in order, namely Psammetichos, since he had no cup took

off from his head his helmet, which was of bronze, and having held it

out to receive the wine he proceeded to make libation: likewise all

the other kings were wont to wear helmets and they happened to have

them then. Now Psammetichos held out his helmet with no treacherous

meaning; but they taking note of that which had been done by

Psammetichos and of the oracle, namely how it had been declared to

them that whosoever of them should make libation with a bronze cup

should be sole king of Egypt, recollecting, I say, the saying of the

Oracle, they did not indeed deem it right to slay Psammetichos, since

they found by examination that he had not done it with any

forethought, but they determined to strip him of almost all his power

and to drive him away into the fen-country, and that from the fen-

country he should not hold any dealings with the rest of Egypt. This

Psammetichos had formerly been a fugitive from the Ethiopian Sabacos

who had killed his father Necos, from him, I say, he had then been a

fugitive in Syria; and when the Ethiopian had departed in consequence

of the vision of the dream, the Egyptians who were of the district of

Sais brought him back to his own country. Then afterwards, when he was

king, it was his fate to be a fugitive a second time on account of the

helmet, being driven by the eleven kings into the fen-country. So then

holding that he had been grievously wronged by them, he thought how he

might take vengeance on those who had driven him out: and when he had

sent to the Oracle of Leto in the city of Buto, where the Egyptians

have their most truthful Oracle, there was given to him the reply that

vengeance would come when men of bronze appeared from the sea. And he

was strongly disposed not to believe that bronze men would come to

help him; but after no long time had passed, certain Ionians and

Carians who had sailed forth for plunder were compelled to come to

shore in Egypt, and they having landed and being clad in bronze

armour, came to the fen-land and brought a report to Psammetichos that

bronze men had come from the sea and were plundering the plain. So he,

perceiving that the saying of the Oracle was coming to pass, dealt in

a friendly manner with the Ionians and Carians, and with large

promises he persuaded them to take his part. Then when he had

persuaded them, with the help of those Egyptians who favoured his

cause and of these foreign mercenaries he overthrew the kings. Having

thus got power over all Egypt, Psammetichos made for Hephaistos that

gateway of the temple at Memphis which is turned towards the South

Wind; and he built a court for Apis, in which Apis is kept when he

appears, opposite to the gateway of the temple, surrounded all with

pillars and covered with figures; and instead of columns there stand

to support the roof of the court colossal statues twelve cubits high.

Now Apis is in the tongue of the Hellenes Epaphos. To the Ionians and

to the Carians who had helped him Psammetichos granted portions of

land to dwell in, opposite to one another with the river Nile between,

and these were called "Encampments"; these portions of land he gave

them, and he paid them besides all that he had promised: moreover he

placed with them Egyptian boys to have them taught the Hellenic

tongue; and from these, who learnt the language thoroughly, are

descended the present class of interpreters in Egypt. Now the Ionians

and Carians occupied these portions of land for a long time, and they

are towards the sea a little below the city of Bubastis, on that which

is called the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. These men king Amasis

afterwards removed from thence and established them at Memphis, making

them into a guard for himself against the Egyptians: and they being

settled in Egypt, we who are Hellenes know by intercourse with them

the certainty of all that which happened in Egypt beginning from king

Psammetichos and afterwards; for these were the first men of foreign

tongue who settled in Egypt: and in the land from which they were

removed there still remained down to my time the sheds where their

ships were drawn up and the ruins of their houses.

Thus then Psammetichos obtained Egypt: and of the Oracle which is in

Egypt I have made mention often before this, and now I give an account

of it, seeing that it is worthy to be described. This Oracle which is

in Egypt is sacred to Leto, and it is established in a great city near

that mouth of the Nile which is called Sebennytic, as one sails up the

river from the sea; and the name of this city where the Oracle is

found is Buto, as I have said before in mentioning it. In this Buto

there is a temple of Apollo and Artemis; and the temple-house of Leto,

in which the Oracle is, is both great in itself and has a gateway of

the height of ten fathoms: but that which caused me most to marvel of

the things to be seen there, I will now tell. There is in this sacred

enclosure a house of Leto made of one single stone upon the top, the

cornice measuring four cubits. This house then of all the things that

were to be seen by me in that temple is the most marvellous, and among

those which come next is the island called Chemmis. This is situated

in a deep and broad lake by the side of the temple at Buto, and it is

said by the Egyptians that this island is a floating island. I myself

did not see it either floating about or moved from its place, and I

feel surprise at hearing of it, wondering if it be indeed a floating

island. In this island of which I speak there is a great temple-house

of Apollo, and three several altars are set up within, and there are

planted in the island many palm-trees and other trees, both bearing

fruit and not bearing fruit. And the Egyptians, when they say that it

is floating, add this story, namely that in this island which formerly

was not floating, Leto, being one of the eight gods who came into

existence first, and dwelling in the city of Buto where she has this

Oracle, received Apollo from Isis as a charge and preserved him,

concealing him in the island which is said now to be a floating

island, at that time when Typhon came after him seeking everywhere and

desiring to find the son of Osiris. Now they say that Apollo and

Artemis are children of Dionysos and of Isis, and that Leto became

their nurse and preserver; and in the Egyptian tongue Apollo is Oros,

Demeter is Isis, and Artemis is Bubastis. From this story and from no

other AEschylus the son of Euphorion took this which I shall say,

wherein he differs from all the preceding poets; he represented namely

that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter. For this reason then, they

say, it became a floating island.

Such is the story which they tell; but as for Psammetichos, he was

king over Egypt for four-and-fifty years, of which for thirty years

save one he was sitting before Azotos, a great city of Syria,

besieging it, until at last he took it: and this Azotos of all cities

about which we have knowledge held out for the longest time under a

siege.

The son of Psammetichos was Necos, and he became king of Egypt. This

man was the first who attempted the channel leading to the Erythraian

Sea, which Dareios the Persian afterwards completed: the length of

this is a voyage of four days, and in breadth it was so dug that two

triremes could go side by side driven by oars; and the water is

brought into it from the Nile. The channel is conducted a little above

the city of Bubastis by Patumos the Arabian city, and runs into the

Erythraian Sea: and it is dug first along those parts of the plain of

Egypt which lie towards Arabia, just above which run the mountains

which extend opposite Memphis, where are the stone-quarries,--along

the base of these mountains the channel is conducted from West to East

for a great way; and after that it is directed towards a break in the

hills and tends from these mountains towards the noon-day and the

South Wind to the Arabian gulf. Now in the place where the journey is

least and shortest from the Northern to the Southern Sea (which is

also called Erythraian), that is from Mount Casion, which is the

boundary between Egypt and Syria, the distance is exactly a thousand

furlongs to the Arabian gulf; but the channel is much longer, since it

is more winding; and in the reign of Necos there perished while

digging it twelve myriads of the Egyptians. Now Necos ceased in the

midst of his digging, because the utterance of an Oracle impeded him,

which was to the effect that he was working for the Barbarian: and the

Egyptians call all men Barbarians who do not agree with them in

speech. Thus having ceased from the work of the channel, Necos betook

himself to raging wars, and triremes were built by him, some for the

Northern Sea and others in the Arabian gulf for the Erythraian Sea;

and of these the sheds are still to be seen. These ships he used when

he needed them; and also on land Necos engaged battle at Magdolos with

the Syrians, and conquered them; and after this he took Cadytis, which

is a great city of Syria: and the dress which he wore when he made

these conquests he dedicated to Apollo, sending it to Branchidai of

the Milesians. After this, having reigned in all sixteen years, he

brought his life to an end, and handed on the kingdom to Psammis his

son.

While this Psammis was king of Egypt, there came to him men sent by

the Eleians, who boasted that they ordered the contest at Olympia in

the most just and honourable manner possible and thought that not even

the Egyptians, the wisest of men, could find out anything besides, to

be added to their rules. Now when the Eleians came to Egypt and said

that for which they had come, then this king called together those of

the Egyptians who were reputed the wisest, and when the Egyptians had

come together they heard the Eleians tell of all that which it was

their part to do in regard to the contest; and when they had related

everything, they said that they had come to learn in addition anything

which the Egyptians might be able to find out besides, which was

juster than this. They then having consulted together asked the

Eleians whether their own citizens took part in the contest; and they

said that it was permitted to any one who desired it, to take part in

the contest: upon which the Egyptians said that in so ordering the

games they had wholly missed the mark of justice; for it could not be

but that they would take part with the man of their own State, if he

was contending, and so act unfairly to the stranger: but if they

really desired, as they said, to order the games justly, and if this

was the cause for which they had come to Egypt, they advised them to

order the contest so as to be for strangers alone to contend in, and

that no Eleian should be permitted to contend. Such was the suggestion

made by the Egyptians to the Eleians.

When Psammis had been king of Egypt for only six years and had made an

expedition to Ethiopia and immediately afterwards had ended his life,

Apries the son of Psammis received the kingdom in succession. This man

came to be the most prosperous of all the kings up to that time except

only his forefather Psammetichos; and he reigned five-and-twenty

years, during which he led an army against Sidon and fought a sea-

fight with the king of Tyre. Since however it was fated that evil

should come upon him it came by occasion of a matter which I shall

relate at greater length in the Libyan history, and at present but

shortly. Apries having sent a great expedition against the Kyrenians,

met with correspondingly great disaster; and the Egyptians considering

him to blame for this revolted from him, supposing that Apries had

with forethought sent them out to evident calamity, in order (as they

said) that there might be a slaughter of them, and he might the more

securely rule over the other Egyptians. Being indignant at this, both

these men who had returned from the expedition and also the friends of

those who had perished made revolt openly. Hearing this Apries sent to

them Amasis, to cause them to cease by persuasion; and when he had

come and was seeking to restrain the Egyptians, as he was speaking and

telling them not to do so, one of the Egyptians stood up behind him

and put a helmet upon his head, saying as he did so that he put it on

to crown him king. And to him this that was done was in some degree

not unwelcome, as he proved by his behaviour; for as soon as the

revolted Egyptians had set him up as king, he prepared to march

against Apries: and Apries hearing this sent to Amasis one of the

Egyptians who were about his own person, a man of reputation, whose

name was Patarbemis, enjoining him to bring Amasis alive into his

presence. When this Patarbemis came and summoned Amasis, the latter,

who happened to be sitting on horseback, lifted up his leg and behaved

in an unseemly manner, bidding him take that back to Apries.

Nevertheless, they say, Patarbemis made demand of him that he should

go to the king, seeing that the king had sent to summon him; and he

answered him that he had for some time past been preparing to do so,

and that Apries would have no occasion to find fault with him, for he

would both come himself and bring others with him. Then Patarbemis

both perceiving his intention from that which he said, and also seeing

his preparations, departed in haste, desiring to make known as quickly

as possible to the king the things which were being done: and when he

came back to Apries not bringing Amasis, the king paying no regard to

that which he said, but being moved by violent anger, ordered his ears

and his nose to be cut off. And the rest of the Egyptians who still

remained on his side, when they saw the man of most repute among them

thus suffering shameful outrage, waited no longer but joined the

others in revolt, and delivered themselves over to Amasis. Then Apries

having heard this also, armed his foreign mercenaries and marched

against the Egyptians: now he had about him Carian and Ionian

mercenaries to the number of thirty thousand; and his royal palace was

in the city of Sais, of great size and worthy to be seen. So Apries

and his army were going against the Egyptians, and Amasis and those

with him were going against the mercenaries; and both sides came to

the city of Momemphis and were about to make trial of one another in

fight.

Now of the Egyptians there are seven classes, and of these one class

is called that of the priests, and another that of the warriors, while

the others are the cowherds, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters,

and boatmen. This is the number of the classes of the Egyptians, and

their names are given them from the occupations which they follow. Of

them the warriors are called Calasirians and Hermotybians, and they

are of the following districts,--for all Egypt is divided into

districts. The districts of the Hermotybians are those of Busiris,

Sais, Chemmis, Papremis, the island called Prosopitis, and the half of

Natho,--of these districts are the Hermotybians, who reached when most

numerous the number of sixteen myriads. Of these not one has been

learnt anything of handicraft, but they are given up to war entirely.

Again the districts of the Calasirians are those of Thebes, Bubastis,

Aphthis, Tanis, Mendes, Sebennytos, Athribis, Pharbaithos, Thmuis,

Onuphis, Anytis, Myecphoris,--this last is on an island opposite to

the city of Bubastis. These are the districts of the Calasirians; and

they reached, when most numerous, to the number of five-and-twenty

myriads of men; nor is it lawful for these, any more than for the

others, to practise any craft; but they practise that which has to do

with war only, handing down the tradition from father to son. Now

whether the Hellenes have learnt this also from the Egyptians, I am

not able to say for certain, since I see that the Thracians also and

Scythians and Persians and Lydians and almost all the Barbarians

esteem those of their citizens who learn the arts, and the descendants

of them, as less honourable than the rest; while those who have got

free from all practice of manual arts are accounted noble, and

especially those who are devoted to war: however that may be, the

Hellenes have all learnt this, and especially the Lacedemonians; but

the Corinthians least of all cast slight upon those who practise

handicraft.

The following privilege was specially granted to this class and to

none others of the Egyptians except the priests, that is to say, each

man had twelve yokes of land specially granted to him free from

imposts: now the yoke of land measures a hundred Egyptian cubits every

way, and the Egyptian cubit is, as it happens, equal to that of Samos.

This, I say, was a special privilege granted to all, and they also had

certain advantages in turn and not the same men twice; that is to say,

a thousand of the Calasirians and a thousand of the Hermotybians acted

as body-guard to the king during each year; and these had besides

their yokes of land an allowance given them for each day of five

pounds weight of bread to each man, and two pounds of beef, and four

half-pints of wine. This was the allowance given to those who were

serving as the king's body-guard for the time being.

So when Apries leading his foreign mercenaries, and Amasis at the head

of the whole body of the Egyptians, in their approach to one another

had come to the city of Momemphis, they engaged in battle: and

although the foreign troops fought well, yet being much inferior in

number they were worsted by reason of this. But Apries is said to have

supposed that not even a god would be able to cause him to cease from

his rule, so firmly did he think that it was established. In that

battle then, I say, he was worsted, and being taken alive was brought

away to the city of Sais, to that which had formerly been his own

dwelling but from thenceforth was the palace of Amasis. There for some

time he was kept in the palace, and Amasis dealt well with him but at

last, since the Egyptians blamed him, saying that he acted not rightly

in keeping alive him who was the greatest foe both to themselves and

to him, therefore he delivered Apries over to the Egyptians; and they

strangled him, and after that buried him in the burial-place of his

fathers: this is in the temple of Athene, close to the sanctuary, on

the left hand as you enter. Now the men of Sais buried all those of

this district who had been kings, within the temple; for the tomb of

Amasis also, though it is further from the sanctuary than that of

Apries and his forefathers, yet this too is within the court of the

temple, and it consists of a colonnade of stone of great size, with

pillars carved to imitate date-palms, and otherwise sumptuously

adorned; and within the colonnade are double doors, and inside the

doors a sepulchral chamber. Also at Sais there is the burial-place of

him whom I account it not pious to name in connexion with such a

matter, which is in the temple of Athene behind the house of the

goddess, stretching along the whole wall of it; and in the sacred

enclosure stand great obelisks of stone, and near them is a lake

adorned with an edging of stone and fairly made in a circle, being in

size, as it seemed to me, equal to that which is called the "Round

Pool" in Delos. On this lake they perform by night the show of his

sufferings, and this the Egyptians call Mysteries. Of these things I

know more fully in detail how they take place, but I shall leave this

unspoken; and of the mystic rites of Demeter, which the Hellenes call

/thesmophoria/, of these also, although I know, I shall leave unspoken

all except so much as piety permits me to tell. The daughters of

Danaos were they who brought this rite out of Egypt and taught it to

the women of the Pelasgians; then afterwards when all the inhabitants

of Peloponnese were driven out by the Dorians, the rite was lost, and

only those who were left behind of the Peloponnesians and not driven

out, that is to say the Arcadians, preserved it.

Apries having thus been overthrown, Amasis became king, being of the

district of Sais, and the name of the city whence he was is Siuph. Now

at the first the Egyptians despised Amasis and held him in no great

regard, because he had been a man of the people and was of no

distinguished family; but afterwards Amasis won them over to himself

by wisdom and not wilfulness. Among innumerable other things of price

which he had, there was a foot-basin of gold in which both Amasis

himself and all his guests were wont always to wash their feet. This

he broke up, and of it he caused to be made the image of a god, and

set it up in the city, where it was most convenient; and the Egyptians

went continually to visit the image and did great reverence to it.

Then Amasis, having learnt that which was done by the men of the city,

called together the Egyptians and made known to them the matter,

saying that the image had been produced from the foot-basin, into

which formerly the Egyptians used to vomit and make water, and in

which they washed their feet, whereas now they did to it great

reverence; and just so, he continued, had he himself now fared, as the

foot-basin; for though formerly he was a man of the people, yet now he

was their king, and he bade them accordingly honour him and have

regard for him. In such manner he won the Egyptians to himself, so

that they consented to be his subjects; and his ordering of affairs

was this:--In the early morning, and until the time of the filling of

the market he did with a good will the business which was brought

before him; but after this he passed the time in drinking and in

jesting at his boon-companions, and was frivolous and playful. And his

friends being troubled at it admonished him in some such words as

these: "O king, thou dost not rightly govern thyself in thus letting

thyself descend to behaviour so trifling; for thou oughtest rather to

have been sitting throughout the day stately upon a stately throne and

administering thy business; and so the Egyptians would have been

assured that they were ruled by a great man, and thou wouldest have

had a better report: but as it is, thou art acting by no means in a

kingly fashion." And he answered them thus: "They who have bows

stretch them at such time as they wish to use them, and when they have

finished using them they loose them again; for if they were stretched

tight always they would break, so that the men would not be able to

use them when they needed them. So also is the state of man: if he

should always be in earnest and not relax himself for sport at the due

time, he would either go mad or be struck with stupor before he was

aware; and knowing this well, I distribute a portion of the time to

each of the two ways of living." Thus he replied to his friends. It is

said however that Amasis, even when he was in a private station, was a

lover of drinking and of jesting, and not at all seriously disposed;

and whenever his means of livelihood failed him through his drinking

and luxurious living, he would go about and steal; and they from whom

he stole would charge him with having their property, and when he

denied it would bring him before the judgment of an Oracle, whenever

there was one in their place; and many times he was convicted by the

Oracles and many times he was absolved: and then when finally he

became king he did as follows:--as many of the gods as had absolved

him and pronounced him not to be a thief, to their temples he paid no

regard, nor gave anything for the further adornment of them, nor even

visited them to offer sacrifice, considering them to be worth nothing

and to possess lying Oracles; but as many as had convicted him of

being a thief, to these he paid very great regard, considering them to

be truly gods, and to present Oracles which did not lie. First in Sais

he built and completed for Athene a temple-gateway which is a great

marvel, and he far surpassed herein all who had done the like before,

both in regard to height and greatness, so large are the stones and of

such quality. Then secondly he dedicated great colossal statues and

man-headed sphinxes very large, and for restoration he caused to be

brought from the stone-quarries which are opposite Memphis, others of

very great size from the city of Elephantine, distant a voyage of not

less than twenty days from Sais: and of them all I marvel most at

this, namely a monolith chamber which he brought from the city of

Elephantine; and they were three years engaged in bringing this, and

two thousand men were appointed to convey it, who all were of the

class of boatmen. Of this house the length outside is one-and-twenty

cubits, the breadth is fourteen cubits, and the height eight. These

are the measures of the monolith house outside; but the length inside

is eighteen cubits and five-sixths of a cubit, the breadth twelve

cubits, and the height five cubits. This lies by the side of the

entrance to the temple; for within the temple they did not draw it,

because, as it is said, while the house was being drawn along, the

chief artificer of it groaned aloud, seeing that much time had been

spent and he was wearied by the work; and Amasis took it to heart as a

warning and did not allow them to draw it further onwards. Some say on

the other hand that a man was killed by it, of those who were heaving

it with levers, and that it was not drawn in for that reason. Amasis

also dedicated in all the other temples which were of repute, works

which are worth seeing for their size, and among them also at Memphis

the colossal statue which lies on its back in front of the temple of

Hephaistos, whose length is five-and-seventy feet; and on the same

base made of the same stone are set two colossal statues, each of

twenty feet in length, one on this side and the other on that side of

the large statue. There is also another of stone of the same size in

Sais, lying in the same manner as that at Memphis. Moreover Amasis was

he who built and finished for Isis her temple at Memphis, which is of

great size and very worthy to be seen.

In the reign of Amasis it is said that Egypt became more prosperous

than at any other time before, both in regard to that which comes to

the land from the river and in regard to that which comes from the

land to its inhabitants, and that at this time the inhabited towns in

it numbered in all twenty thousand. It was Amasis too who established

the law that every year each one of the Egyptians should declare to

the ruler of his district, from what source he got his livelihood, and

if any man did not do this or did not make declaration of an honest

way of living, he should be punished with death. Now Solon the

Athenian received from Egypt this law and had it enacted for the

Athenians, and they have continued to observe it, since it is a law

with which none can find fault.

Moreover Amasis became a lover of the Hellenes; and besides other

proofs of friendship which he gave to several among them, he also

granted the city of Naucratis for those of them who came to Egypt to

dwell in; and to those who did not desire to stay, but who made

voyages thither, he granted portions of land to set up altars and make

sacred enclosures for their gods. Their greatest enclosure and that

one which has most name and is most frequented is called the

Hellenion, and this was established by the following cities in common:

--of the Ionians Chios, Teos, Phocaia, Clazomenai, of the Dorians

Rhodes, Cnidos, Halicarnassos, Phaselis, and of the Aiolians Mytilene

alone. To these belongs this enclosure and these are the cities which

appoint superintendents of the port; and all other cities which claim

a share in it, are making a claim without any right. Besides this the

Eginetans established on their own account a sacred enclosure

dedicated to Zeus, the Samians one to Hera, and the Milesians one to

Apollo. Now in old times Naucratis alone was an open trading-place,

and no other place in Egypt: and if any one came to any other of the

Nile mouths, he was compelled to swear that he came not thither of his

own free will, and when he had thus sworn his innocence he had to sail

with his ship to the Canobic mouth, or if it were not possible to sail

by reason of contrary winds, then he had to carry his cargo round the

head of the Delta in boats to Naucratis: thus highly was Naucratis

privileged. Moreover when the Amphictyons had let out the contract for

building the temple which now exists at Delphi, agreeing to pay a sum

of three hundred talents (for the temple which formerly stood there

had been burnt down of itself), it fell to the share of the people of

Delphi to provide the fourth part of the payment; and accordingly the

Delphians went about to various cities and collected contributions.

And when they did this they got from Egypt as much as from any place,

for Amasis gave them a thousand talents' weight of alum, while the

Hellenes who dwelt in Egypt gave them twenty pounds of silver.

Also with the people of Kyrene Amasis made an agreement for friendship

and alliance; and he resolved too to marry a wife from thence, whether

because he desired to have a wife of Hellenic race, or, apart from

that, on account of friendship for the people of Kyrene: however that

may be, he married, some say the daughter of Battos, others of

Arkesilaos, and others of Critobulos, a man of repute among the

citizens; and her name was Ladike. Now whenever Amasis lay with her he

found himself unable to have intercourse, but with his other wives he

associated as he was wont; and as this happened repeatedly, Amasis

said to his wife, whose name was Ladike: "Woman, thou hast given me

drugs, and thou shall surely perish more miserably than any other."

Then Ladike, when by her denials Amasis was not at all appeased in his

anger against her, made a vow in her soul to Aphrodite, that if Amasis

on that night had intercourse with her (seeing that this was the

remedy for her danger), she would send an image to be dedicated to her

at Kyrene; and after the vow immediately Amasis had intercourse, and

from thenceforth whenever Amasis came in to her he had intercourse

with her; and after this he became very greatly attached to her. And

Ladike paid the vow that she had made to the goddess; for she had an

image made and sent it to Kyrene, and it is still preserved even to my

own time, standing with its face turned away from the city of the

Kyrenians. This Ladike Cambyses, having conquered Egypt and heard from

her who she was, sent back unharmed to Kyrene.

Amasis also dedicated offerings in Hellas, first at Kyrene an image of

Athene covered over with gold and a figure of himself made like by

painting; then in the temple of Athene at Lindos two images of stone

and a corslet of linen worthy to be seen; and also at Samos two wooden

figures of himself dedicated to Hera, which were standing even to my

own time in the great temple, behind the doors. Now at Samos he

dedicated offerings because of the guest-friendship between himself

and Polycrates the son of Aiakes; at Lindos for no guest-friendship

but because the temple of Athene at Lindos is said to have been

founded by the daughters of Danaos, who had touched land there at the

time when they were fleeing from the sons of Aigyptos. These offerings

were dedicated by Amasis; and he was the first of men who conquered

Cyprus and subdued it so that it paid him tribute.

End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus

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